Saffron Extract by Lake Avenue Nutrition

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Alzheimer disease. Oral saffron might modestly improve cognition in patients with Alzheimer disease. Details: Two small clinical trials in patients with probable Alzheimer disease living in Iran shows that taking saffron extract (Green Plants of Life, Co., previously Impiran) 15 mg orally twice daily for 16-22 weeks improves cognitive ability and disease progression when compared with placebo, and is no different for improving cognition when compared with taking donepezil (Aricept) 10 mg daily (17401,93395). Another small clinical study in adults also living in Iran with moderate to severe Alzheimer disease shows that taking saffron extract 30 mg daily for 48 weeks seems to be no different for improving cognition when compared with taking memantine (Namenda) 20 mg (105617). It is unclear if these findings are generalizable to patients in other geographic locations.
• Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. Oral saffron seems to improve symptoms of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy, although it is unclear how it compares with standard care. Details: A clinical crossover study in adults with mild to severe chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy shows that taking the saffron constituent crocin 15 mg twice daily for 8 weeks progressively improves pain scores when compared with placebo, with significant improvements appearing after 5 weeks of treatment. During a 2-week washout period, pain scores in the treatment group returned to baseline, suggesting a loss of benefit after discontinuation. This study included patients who were actively receiving chemotherapy and those who had completed or discontinued treatment; however, a separate analysis for each subgroup was not conducted (108904).
• Depression. Oral saffron extract seems to improve symptoms of depression when used alone or as an adjunct to conventional antidepressants. Details: Meta-analyses and clinical trials in adults with mild to moderate major depressive disorder show that taking saffron extract 30 mg daily or dried saffron stigma 100 mg daily for 6-12 weeks improves symptoms of depression when compared with control (11024,13103,72434,93399,93404,100140,103928,103931). Saffron extract also seems to be comparable to imipramine 100 mg daily, fluoxetine 10 mg twice daily, citalopram 40 mg daily, or sertraline 100 mg daily (11024,17222,19032,93399,100140,100658,103927). Furthermore, some clinical research shows that taking a specific saffron extract (affron, Pharmactive Biotech Products) 14 mg twice daily for 8 weeks or the saffron constituent, crocin, 15 mg twice daily for 4 weeks, as an adjunct to a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) also modestly reduces depressive symptoms when compared with placebo (93410,103934). However, other research has produced mixed results, which may be due to the use of different depression scales. An umbrella meta-analysis consisting of 7 separate meta-analyses shows that taking saffron, either alone or with other treatments, improves symptoms of depression when compared with control in studies using the Beck depression inventory criteria, but not in those using the Hamilton depression rating scale, the depression anxiety stress scale, or mixed scales (108911). In general, the validity of the available research is limited by the variety of saffron doses and treatment durations, as well as the fact that most research has been conducted in Iran. It is unclear if saffron is beneficial for comorbid depression and anxiety. A small clinical trial in adults with this condition shows that taking saffron extract 15 mg twice daily for 8 weeks does not improve symptoms of depression, but does improve symptoms of anxiety, when compared with placebo (100137). This study may not have been adequately powered to detect smaller differences between groups. Saffron has also been studied in combination with other ingredients. One clinical trial in adults with major depressive disorder shows that taking saffron 15 mg twice daily in combination with curcumin 250 mg twice daily for 12 weeks does not reduce depressive symptoms when compared with placebo (97359). The validity of this finding may be limited by the large placebo response.

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Small studies suggest that oral saffron might slightly improve visual acuity in AMD. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults 50 years and older with AMD shows that taking saffron extract 20 mg daily for 3 months has a modest effect on visual acuity and some other measurements of retinal health when compared with placebo. This improvement occurred in patients also taking Age-Related Eye Diseases Study (AREDS) supplements or equivalent. However, these small improvements are unlikely to be considered clinically significant (93398,100135).
• Antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction. Small studies suggest that oral saffron may reduce some symptoms of fluoxetine-induced sexual dysfunction. Details: One small clinical study in females with major depression stabilized on fluoxetine 40 mg daily shows that taking saffron extract 30 mg daily for 4 weeks improves arousal, lubrication, and pain during sexual intercourse when compared with placebo (93401). A small clinical study in males with major depression stabilized on fluoxetine 40 mg daily shows that taking saffron extract 30 mg daily improves erectile dysfunction and intercourse satisfaction when compared with placebo (93407). However, taking saffron does not appear to significantly improve desire, overall satisfaction, or orgasm in patients taking fluoxetine (93401,93407).
• Antipsychotic-induced metabolic side effects. It is unclear if oral saffron reduces metabolic side effects from antipsychotic treatment. Details: A small clinical study in adults with schizophrenia who are taking olanzapine shows that taking saffron aqueous extract 30 mg daily for 12 weeks, or crocin, a constituent of saffron, 30 mg daily for 6 weeks, reduces fasting blood glucose and the risk of developing metabolic syndrome. At 6 weeks, metabolic syndrome occurred in 0% of patients taking saffron, about 9% of patients taking crocin, and about 27% of patients taking placebo. Levels of cholesterol, HBA1c, and insulin were unchanged (93397).
• Anxiety. Small clinical studies suggest that oral saffron might improve anxiety. Details: One preliminary clinical study in adults with type 2 diabetes and comorbid depression-anxiety (CDA) shows that taking saffron extract 15 mg twice daily for 8 weeks improves symptoms of anxiety by 34% when compared with placebo (100137). Other preliminary clinical research in adults with mild to moderate anxiety shows that taking saffron extract 50 mg twice daily for 12 weeks improves symptoms of anxiety by 81%, compared with an improvement of 53% with placebo (93404).
• Asthma. There is limited evidence on the oral use of saffron in patients with allergic asthma. Details: A small clinical study in patients with mild to moderate allergic asthma shows that taking saffron extract 100 mg daily for 8 weeks improves symptoms of asthma, but not asthma severity, when compared with placebo. The use of salbutamol was reduced by approximately 50% in patients taking saffron. Saffron also produced modest improvements in waking during the night due to asthma symptoms, shortness of breath during the night, and activity limitation (100141). However, due to the low rate of symptoms at baseline, it is difficult to determine if these improvements are clinically significant.
• Athletic performance. It is unclear if oral saffron is beneficial for athletic performance. Details: A small clinical study in healthy, untrained, young adult males shows that taking dried saffron stigma powder 300 mg every evening for 10 days improves muscular force by up to 10% and might improve reaction time when compared with placebo (93406). A very small clinical study in healthy adults suggests that taking crocetin, a constituent of saffron, 15 mg daily for 8 days might improve performance on a 3.5-hour physically exhausting task in males, but not in females, when compared with placebo (19058).
• Burning mouth syndrome. It is unclear if oral saffron reduces burning mouth syndrome. Details: A very small clinical study in patients with burning mouth syndrome shows that taking the saffron constituent crocin 15 mg daily for 11 weeks seems to reduce pain to a similar degree as citalopram 20 mg daily (103937).
• Cancer. Although there is interest in using oral saffron for cancer, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of saffron for this condition.
• Cough. Although there is interest in using oral saffron for cough, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of saffron for this purpose.
• Diabetes. Research evaluating oral saffron for glycemic control is conflicting. Details: Some clinical research in patients with type 2 diabetes shows that taking saffron extract 30 mg daily, saffron powder 100 mg daily, or drinking black tea stewed with saffron powder 1 gram three times daily, for 2-3 months, does not improve glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), but might modestly reduce fasting blood glucose, when compared with placebo (99436,100138,103936,108905). The validity of these findings is limited due to differences in glycemic control at baseline and differences in the dose and form of saffron used. A meta-analysis of clinical trials shows that taking saffron, saffron extract, or the constituent crocin for up to 3 months does not improve levels of fasting blood glucose, blood lipids, or HbA1c when compared with placebo or control. However, this research included healthy individuals, as well as patients with type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, coronary artery disease (CAD), schizophrenia, or depression (100139). Patients with type 2 diabetes were not analyzed separately, limiting the applicability of this finding.
• Dysmenorrhea. Oral saffron has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research in students with dysmenorrhea shows that taking a specific combination product containing saffron, celery seed, and anise extracts (SCA, Gol Daro Herbal Medicine Laboratory) 500 mg three times daily for 3 days reduces the severity and duration of menstrual pain when compared with placebo (17214).
• Erectile dysfunction (ED). It is unclear if oral or topical saffron improves ED; the available research is conflicting. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with diabetes and ED shows that applying a gel containing saffron 1% to the penis 30 minutes prior to intercourse for one month improves general symptoms when compared with placebo. ED, sexual desire, and orgasmic function improved by 37%, 14%, and 21%, respectively, for those using saffron gel compared to 2%, 2%, and 0%, respectively, for those in the placebo group (93408). A small, open-label study has also shown benefit with dried oral saffron 200 mg daily for 10 days (19057). However, in adults with ED who are naïve to treatment, one small clinical study shows that taking saffron extract 30 mg twice daily by mouth for 12 weeks does not improve symptoms when compared to baseline (93409). These conflicting results may be related to the cause of ED, as well as the route, dose, and form of saffron used.
• Exercise-induced muscle soreness. It is unclear if oral saffron reduces muscle soreness from exercise. Details: Preliminary clinical research in healthy but exercise-naïve young adult males shows that taking dried saffron powder 300 mg every evening for 10 days, starting one week before a leg press exercise, reduces delayed muscle soreness about 11-fold when compared with placebo. Saffron appears to be more effective than indomethacin for reducing pain and maintaining muscle force during the 72-hour period post-exercise (93405).
• Glaucoma. It is unclear if oral saffron reduces intraocular pressure in patients with glaucoma. Details: A small clinical study in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma shows that taking saffron extract 30 mg daily for 4 weeks, in conjunction with timolol and dorzolamide, reduces intraocular pressure by an additional 16.5% when compared with placebo. After a 4-week washout, intraocular pressure returned to baseline in the saffron group (93400).
• Hyperlipidemia. Small studies suggest that oral saffron does not affect lipid levels in most patients; the effect of saffron in adults with diagnosed hyperlipidemia is unclear. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical trials shows that taking saffron, saffron extract, or the constituent crocin for up to 3 months does not reduce levels of total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, or triglycerides, or increase levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol when compared with placebo or control. However, patients evaluated in the available clinical research include those with type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, coronary artery disease (CAD), schizophrenia, and depression, as well as healthy or mildly overweight individuals (100139).
• Hypertension. It is unclear if oral saffron reduces blood pressure; the available research is conflicting. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that drinking black tea containing saffron 1 gram three times daily for 8 weeks does not reduce blood pressure in patients with diabetes and elevated systolic blood pressure (96669). However, another small clinical study in males with hypertension shows that taking saffron stigma 200 mg daily for 12 weeks seems to reduce blood pressure when compared with no intervention (105618).
• Impaired glucose tolerance (prediabetes). It is unclear if oral saffron improves glycemic control in adults with prediabetes. Details: A small clinical study in patients with prediabetes and obesity shows that taking saffron extract 15 mg daily for 2 months modestly reduces fasting blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) when compared with placebo (103933). It is unclear if this small improvement in glycemic control is maintained after 2 months.
• Insomnia. It is unclear if oral saffron is beneficial for reducing sleep problems and improving sleep quality in healthy adults or those with underlying medical conditions. Details: A small clinical study in patients with self-reported sleep problems shows that taking a specific saffron extract (affron, Pharmactive Biotech Products) 14 mg twice daily for 4 weeks reduces insomnia, improves sleep quality, and increases restorative sleep when compared with placebo (103935). Another small clinical study in a similar population shows that taking this same product as 14 mg or 28 mg one hour before bedtime for 4 weeks reduces insomnia and improves sleep quality when compared with placebo, with no observed differences between dosage groups (108908). However, a small clinical study in adults with mild to moderate insomnia and anxiety shows that taking a different saffron extract (Saffr'activ SAF 3C PIM, Comercial Quimica Massó) 15.5 mg daily for 6 weeks improves most sleep quality parameters when compared with baseline, but not when compared with placebo (105624). All studies were funded by the supplement manufacturer, which may limit the validity of these findings. A meta-analysis of clinical research evaluating saffron for sleep in a variety of populations, including healthy patients, those with insomnia or type 2 diabetes, or individuals receiving methadone maintenance treatment, suggests that taking saffron or the constituent crocin improves sleep quality when compared with placebo (108912). Furthermore, a small clinical study in patients with type 2 diabetes with overweight or obesity shows that taking saffron 100 mg daily for 8 weeks improves global Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) scores when compared with placebo (108905).
• Labor pain. Although there is interest in using oral saffron to reduce labor pain, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of saffron for this purpose.
• Male infertility. It is unclear if oral saffron is beneficial for improving sperm parameters in males with infertility. Details: Clinical research in males under 45 years of age with oligoasthenoteratozoospermia shows that taking a saffron extract 30 mg orally twice daily for 26 weeks does not increase sperm motility, density, or morphology when compared with placebo (18102). Other preliminary clinical research in males with idiopathic infertility shows that taking saffron 50 mg three times each week for 3 months improves sperm motility and morphology, but not sperm count, when compared to baseline (19033). These conflicting outcomes may be related to the cause of infertility, as well as the dose and form of saffron used.
• Menopausal symptoms. It is unclear if oral saffron reduces menopausal symptoms. Details: A small clinical study in patients with menopausal symptoms shows that taking a specific saffron stigma extract (affron, Pharmactive Biotech Products) 14 mg twice daily for 12 weeks improves symptoms of depression and anxiety, but not vasomotor symptoms such as hot flashes, when compared with placebo (105622). Saffron has also been evaluated in combination with other ingredients. A small clinical study in patients with menopausal symptoms shows that taking a combination of saffron 60 mg, fennel 120 mg, and chamomile 1000 mg daily for 12 weeks modestly reduces physical, psychological, and urogenital symptom scores on the Menopause Rating Scale when compared with either placebo or lower doses of this combination (103628). The validity of this study is limited by unclear reporting of results. Also, it is unclear if reported benefits are due to saffron, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Multiple sclerosis-related fatigue. It is unclear if oral saffron reduces symptoms of fatigue in patients with multiple sclerosis. Details: A small clinical study in patients with MS shows that taking one tablespoon of simple syrup containing saffron extract 0.5% every 8 hours for two months reduces fatigue when compared with baseline (103930). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). It is unclear if oral saffron reduces symptoms of opioid withdrawal. Details: A small clinical study in adults with OCD shows that taking crocin, a constituent of saffron, 15 mg daily for 8 weeks reduces symptoms when compared with baseline, but is no better than fluoxetine 20 mg daily (105620). This finding is limited due to small study size and the subjectivity of outcome measures.
• Opioid withdrawal. It is unclear if oral saffron is beneficial for opioid withdrawal; the available research is conflicting. Details: A small clinical study in adults receiving treatment with methadone for opioid abuse shows that taking crocin, a constituent of saffron, 30 mg daily for 12 weeks modestly reduces cravings and withdrawal symptoms when compared with placebo (105616). Conversely, a small clinical study in patients with opioid dependence shows that taking a specific product (Krocina) containing crocin, a constituent of saffron, 15 mg twice daily for 6 weeks in addition to motivational counseling does not improve withdrawal symptoms, cravings, depression, anxiety, or stress during the detoxification or abstinence phase (108913). The reason for these conflicting findings is unclear but may be related to the differences in adjunctive treatments between studies.
• Postpartum depression. It is unclear if oral saffron is beneficial for speeding recovery from postpartum depression. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients experiencing symptoms of depression less than 12 weeks after giving birth shows that taking saffron 30 mg daily for 6 weeks (SaffroMood, Green Plants of Life Co. Ltd) is as effective as fluoxetine for treating depression. Both treatment groups experienced similar remission and partial response rates (93402). Another preliminary study in breastfeeding Iranian patients with mild to moderate depression shows that taking saffron 15 mg twice daily for 8 weeks improves depressive symptoms by about 50% when compared to baseline (97361). However, it is not clear if the improvement in these studies was related to saffron or the natural resolution of postpartum depression.
• Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). It is unclear if oral saffron improves PMDD symptoms. Details: A clinical study in patients with PMDD shows that taking saffron 15 mg twice daily for 14 days prior to menstruation improves patient-rated PMDD symptom severity when compared with placebo, but not when compared with taking fluoxetine 20 mg twice daily (105625).
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). It is unclear if oral saffron improves PMS symptoms. Details: A small clinical study in patients aged 20-45 years with PMS shows that taking a specific saffron extract 15 mg twice daily throughout two menstrual cycles improves symptom severity when compared with placebo (16555).
• Psoriasis. Although there is interest in using oral saffron for psoriasis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of saffron for this condition.
• Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). It is unclear if oral saffron reduces RA symptoms. Details: A small clinical study in females with RA shows that taking saffron 100 mg daily for 3 months modestly reduces the number of tender and swollen joints and reduces pain when compared with placebo (103932). The validity of this study is limited by its small size and the fact that all clinical parameters were secondary, exploratory outcomes. In contrast, a small clinical study in patients with newly diagnosed RA shows that adding saffron 100 mg daily for 3 months to standard treatment with prednisolone 5 mg daily and methotrexate 7.5 mg once weekly does not improve disease activity or quality of life when compared with placebo and standard treatment (108907). The validity of this finding is limited due to low adherence to treatment protocols.
• Ulcerative colitis. It is unclear if oral saffron reduces ulcerative colitis symptoms. Details: A small clinical study in patients with ulcerative colitis shows that taking saffron extract 100 mg daily for 8 weeks reduces disease activity when compared with placebo (105626). More evidence is needed to rate saffron for these uses.

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LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Saffron has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US for use as a spice or food coloring agent (4912).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in larger amounts, short-term. Saffron extracts have been used with apparent safety in clinical trials at doses of up to 100 mg daily for up to 26 weeks (11024,13103,16555,17214,17401,18102,93395,93397,93400,93403)(93407,97359,99436,100135,100138,100140,100658,100659). The saffron constituent crocin has been used with apparent safety at a dose of up to 30 mg daily for up to 3 months (93410,100139,105616).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in high doses or for longer than 26 weeks. Taking 5 grams or more of saffron can cause severe side effects. Doses of 12-20 grams can be lethal (12,18). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of saffron when used topically.

PREGNANCY: LIKELY UNSAFE
when used orally in amounts exceeding those commonly found in foods. Larger amounts of saffron have uterine stimulant and abortifacient effects (18); avoid using.

LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

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ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, concomitant use of saffron with antidiabetes drugs might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.  Details Some clinical research shows that taking saffron extract reduces fasting levels of glucose when used in addition to hypoglycemic agents (100138). However, saffron powder itself has not been shown to reduce fasting glucose levels (99436).

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concomitant use of saffron with antihypertensive drugs might have additive effects.  Details Animal and human research suggests that saffron extract can decrease blood pressure (72518,72365,72473,93409).

CAFFEINE Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, saffron might inhibit the metabolism of caffeine.  Details A small clinical study suggests that taking saffron powder 300 mg in 150 mL water daily for 5 days and then taking caffeine 200 mg seems to reduce caffeine metabolite levels in the saliva and urine in males, but not females. Theoretically, this may be due to the inhibition of cytochrome P450 1A2 by saffron (100130).

CNS DEPRESSANTS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concomitant use of saffron and CNS depressants might have additive sedative effects.  Details Clinical research shows that taking saffron extract 60 mg orally daily for 26 weeks can cause drowsiness and sedation (18102). Animal research suggests that adding saffron to hexobarbital further increases sleeping and slows motor activity (72544).

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General ...Orally, saffron extract seems to be generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Gastrointestinal complaints, nausea, sedation, vomiting.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Anaphylaxis.

Dermatologic ...Orally, sweating and flushing have been reported in clinical research for patients taking saffron 30-60 mg daily (93402,93409). Saffron poisoning can occur with oral intake of doses of 5 grams or more and symptoms include yellow appearance of the skin (2,11).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, saffron has been associated with changes in appetite, nausea, and vomiting when given at doses of 30 mg twice daily for 26 weeks, or when the saffron constituent crocin was given as 15 mg twice daily for 12 weeks (18102,105616). At lower doses of 30 mg daily, the occurrence rate of these and other adverse events such as dry mouth, dyspepsia, diarrhea, and constipation was rare or similar to placebo (13103,93395,93402,93409). Saffron poisoning can occur with oral intake of doses of 5 grams or more and symptoms include yellow appearance of the mucous membranes (mimicking icterus), vomiting, and bloody diarrhea (2,11).

Genitourinary ...One report of excessive uterine bleeding occurred in a clinical trial. The patient was taking the saffron constituent crocin 15 mg twice daily. It is unclear whether this event was related to treatment with the saffron constituent (93410).
Saffron poisoning can occur with oral intake of doses of 5 grams or more; symptoms include bleeding from the uterus (2,11).

Hematologic ...Orally, saffron extract has been reported to cause decreases in platelet, white blood cell, and red blood cell counts after 7 days to 12 weeks of use with doses of 60-200 mg daily. Many of these decreases were only significant when compared to baseline but did not maintain significance when compared to placebo. These reductions were not considered clinically significant (18102,72473,93403,93409).
Saffron poisoning can occur with oral intake of doses of 5 grams or more; symptoms include bloody diarrhea, hematuria, bleeding from the nose, lips, eyelids or uterus, and thrombocytopenic purpura (2,11).

Immunologic ...Allergy to oral saffron has been reported in clinical trials (93404). Anaphylactic reactions can occur within minutes of eating food prepared with saffron (4107,72555). Occupational exposure to saffron has been associated with the development of rhinoconjunctivitis and allergy-induced asthma (4106).

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, saffron has been reported to cause drowsiness, headache, agitation, and sedation when given at doses of 30 mg twice daily for up to 26 weeks or when crocin is given as 15 mg twice daily for 12 weeks (18102,105616). At doses of 30 mg daily for 6 weeks, the side effect occurrence rate was similar to placebo (13103). Saffron poisoning can occur with oral intake of doses of 5 grams or more; symptoms include vertigo and numbness (2,11).

Ocular/Otic ...Orally, saffron poisoning with oral intake of doses of 5 grams or more can cause ocular symptoms such as yellow appearance of the sclera (2,11).

Psychiatric ...Orally, saffron has been reported to cause anxiety and hypomania when given at doses of 30 mg twice daily for 26 weeks (18102). At doses of 30 mg daily for 6 weeks, the occurrence rate was similar to placebo (13103,93395). One report of agitation occurred in a clinical trial. The patient was taking the saffron constituent crocin 15 mg twice daily. It is unclear whether this event was related to treatment with the saffron constituent (93410).

Renal ...Orally, the saffron constituent crocin given as 15 mg twice daily for 12 week was associated with one case of urinary incontinence (105616). Saffron poisoning can occur with oral intake of doses of 5 grams or more; symptoms include hematuria and uremic collapse (2,11).

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