Complete Menopause Support Complex - A.M. Formula [Discontinued] by Nature's Bounty Optimal Solutions

LIKELY EFFECTIVE

• Biotin deficiency. Oral and injectable biotin prevents and treats biotin deficiency. Details: Biotin up to 10 mg daily has been used to treat and prevent biotin deficiency. Injections of biotin 150 mcg daily for 3-5 days have been used in adults. Biotin deficiency might occur due to different etiologies such as inherited biotinidase deficiency, malnutrition, chronic use of anticonvulsants, pregnancy, and excessive and chronic raw egg consumption (6243,19347). A very small study in newborns aged 1-6 months shows that adding biotin to infant formula safely improves biotin status in formula-fed infants (111365). The validity of these findings is limited by a lack of blinding, no randomization, and the small sample size.

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Multiple sclerosis (MS). In spite of contrary reports, high-dose biotin (300 mg daily) does not reduce disability in patients with progressive MS. It also does not seem to be linked to an increased risk for relapse. Details: Although most earlier research suggested benefit, the highest quality evidence shows that high-dose biotin does not improve outcomes in progressive MS (95662,102963,102966,104011). A large multi-centered randomized clinical trial (SPI2) in patients with progressive MS and high disability shows that taking biotin 100 mg three times daily for 15 months does not improve disability, as measured on the expanded disability status scale (EDSS), or 25-foot walking time, when compared with placebo. The SPI2 clinical trial also did not find that biotin increases the rate of relapse (104011), a concern raised in one observational study of high-dose biotin (104000). Also, a large observational study of adults with progressive MS failed to identity an increase in annualized relapse rates in patients that reported taking biotin when compared with controls (105716). Other observational research has also found no effect on the relapse risk (102963,102964). There is some speculation that any increased rate of relapse identified in some high-dose biotin cohorts might be due to detection bias or reduced compliance with disease-modifying therapies.
• Seborrheic dermatitis. Oral biotin doesn't seem to improve seborrheic dermatitis of infancy. Details: A clinical trial in infants with seborrheic dermatitis shows that biotin given by mouth does not improve symptoms when compared with placebo (8469).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Alopecia areata. It is unclear if oral biotin is beneficial for alopecia areata. Details: A small clinical study in healthy adults with alopecia areata shows that weekly injections of intramuscular biotin 5 mg/1 mL and dexpanthenol 250 mg/2 mL for 6 weeks reduces hair fall count and transiently increases hair density compared with baseline (111366). The validity of these findings is limited by a lack of a placebo control group, small sample size, and short duration of treatment. It is unclear if the effects are due to biotin, dexpanthenol, or the combination. Another small clinical study in 9-year-old children with alopecia areata shows that taking biotin 20 mg with zinc aspartate 100 mg orally along with topical application of clobetasol propionate 0.025% daily for one year promotes hair regrowth in 33% of children, compared with 0% in the group receiving the steroid deflazacort (6932). It is unclear if these effects are due to biotin, zinc, topical clobetasol, or the combination.
• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, Lou Gehrig's disease). Although there is interest in using oral biotin for ALS, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of biotin for this condition.
• Biotin-thiamine-responsive basal ganglia disease. Adding oral biotin to oral thiamine does not seem to improve most symptoms associated with this condition, although it may slightly speed recovery from acute crisis in children. Details: A small case series in children ages 1-12 years with biotin-thiamine-responsive basal ganglia disease has found that adding biotin 5 mg/kg daily to thiamine 40 mg/kg daily for 30 months is not associated with additional symptomatic improvement in encephalopathy, seizures, dystonia, or other neurologic sequelae when compared with taking only thiamine. However, taking biotin with thiamine is associated with a 1-day reduction in recovery from acute crisis when compared with thiamine alone (95661).
• Brittle nails. Low quality clinical studies suggest that oral biotin might improve nail thickness and prevent the splitting of brittle nails. Details: Some small, low quality clinical studies in people with brittle nails shows that taking biotin 2.5 mg orally daily for 1.5 to 15 months increases nail thickness and decreases the splitting of fingernails and toenails in some people when compared with baseline (171,35593). The validity of these findings is limited by the small study sizes and the lack of a comparator group.
• Depression. Although there is interest in using oral biotin for mild depression, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of biotin for this condition.
• Diabetes. It is unclear if oral biotin is beneficial for type 2 diabetes. Details: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials shows that taking biotin 1.5-15 mg orally daily for 1-3 months does not improve fasting blood glucose or serum insulin levels when compared with placebo. However, the validity of these results is limited by inclusion of subjects with and without diabetes (110044). A very small study in adults with type 2 diabetes also shows that taking biotin 5 mg three times daily for 28 days does not affect glucose or insulin levels when compared to baseline (11579). Biotin has also been studied in combination with other ingredients. Preliminary clinical research shows that a taking a specific supplement containing a combination of biotin 2 mg and chromium picolinate 600 mcg (Diachrome, Nutrition 21) can lower blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin levels in patients with type 2 diabetes who are poorly controlled on oral hypoglycemic drugs (12385,12390,15169). It is unclear if these effects are due to biotin, chromium, or the combination.
• Diabetic neuropathy. Although there is interest in using oral and intramuscular biotin for diabetic neuropathy, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of biotin for this condition.
• Muscle cramps. It is unclear if biotin is beneficial for improving muscle cramps in patients undergoing hemodialysis. Details: Patients undergoing hemodialysis are prone to muscle cramps. A small clinical study in patients with hemodialysis-related muscle cramps shows that taking biotin 1 mg in the morning daily for at least one week prevents and reduces severity of muscle cramps when compared to baseline. Cessation of biotin led to recurrence of cramps, and restarting oral biotin led to resolution of cramps during hemodialysis (89475). The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of comparator group. More evidence is needed to rate biotin for these uses.

(Read more about BIOTIN)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Menopausal symptoms. Oral black cohosh seems to modestly improve some physical symptoms of menopause, but it is unclear if black cohosh improves mood-related symptoms. Details: A meta-analysis of 22 studies in adults with menopause shows that taking black cohosh extract alone or in combination with other herbal medicines for 4-52 weeks improves overall menopausal symptoms, hot flashes, and somatic symptoms but not anxiety or depressive symptoms when compared with placebo (111659). Meta-analyses of 20 clinical trials that assessed black cohosh shows that overall black cohosh is not superior to placebo and is inferior to hormonal therapy for reducing hot flash frequency and symptoms of menopause (89467,92661). The most consistent evidence is for a specific isopropanolic extract of black cohosh (Remifemin, Phytopharmica/Enzymatic Therapy). When taken in doses of 40-127 mg daily for up to 12 weeks it reduces menopausal symptoms and hot flash frequency when compared with placebo (9437,13143,13184,14423,15889,35824,35853,35904,35964). It also seems to be comparable to hormonal therapy, including low-dose transdermal estradiol (Estraderm) 25 mcg every 7 days (13184), tibolone 2.5 mg daily (15889,35904), or conjugated equine estrogens (Premarin) 0.625 mg daily (35964). Additionally, the Spanish Menopause Society (AEEM) states that most current evidence shows that this specific black cohosh extract, at a dose of 40 mg daily, is most effective at improving mood and treating vasomotor symptoms such as reducing night sweats and hot flushes, particularly in those with intense hot flushes. In women with natural menopause, taking this extract at a dose of 8-128 mg for 3-6 months treats vasomotor symptoms more effectively than placebo and similarly to low-dose transdermal estrogen or tibolone. Additionally, black cohosh improves depression, anxiety, sleep quality, vaginal atrophy, and bone metabolism but does not seem to clinically impact endometrium thickness, cognitive function, skin, or lipid profiles (111634). Research using other formulations of black cohosh is less consistent. One commercial black cohosh extract CR BNO 1055 (Klimadynon/Menofem, Bionorica AG) 40 mg daily in 1-2 divided doses for 60-90 days does not reduce menopausal symptoms when compared with control groups (10987,13169,35908). Other clinical research shows that taking a different commercial black cohosh extract (Remixin, Mikro-Gen) 40 mg daily for 6 months reduces hot flashes and night sweats when compared with fluoxetine 20 mg daily (35852). However, the high dropout rate and lack of placebo group limit the reliability of these findings. Studies using non-commercial black cohosh extracts have been mostly negative. In one study, taking a black cohosh extract 6.5 mg daily for 12 weeks did not reduce hot flashes or symptom rating scores when compared with placebo; however, a subgroup of patients with at least moderate symptoms appeared to have improvement in some symptoms (14424). In another study, taking black cohosh ethanolic extract 160 mg daily did not reduce frequency of hot flashes or other vasomotor symptoms after 12 months of treatment (15158). Taking another black cohosh extract 128 mg daily for 12 months was significantly less effective than conjugated equine estrogens (Premarin) in reducing hot flashes and night sweats, and was also less effective than placebo at some time points during the study (17091). Black cohosh has also been evaluated in patients with cancer treatment-induced menopausal symptoms. A small observational study in adults with menopausal symptoms secondary to tamoxifen therapy for breast cancer suggests that taking a dry extract of black cohosh 20 mg improves climacteric symptoms when compared with placebo (111635). The validity of these effects is limited by a small sample size and lack of a comparator group. Preliminary clinical trials have also evaluated black cohosh in combination with numerous other herbal ingredients (15037,15893,19552,35853,53707,103269). Several trials have shown a benefit with some combinations when compared with baseline or placebo, but these combinations have not been compared with black cohosh alone. It is unclear whether the effects are due to black cohosh, other ingredients, or the combinations.

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Acne. Although there has been interest in using topical black cohosh for acne, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black cohosh for this purpose.
• Anxiety. Black cohosh does not appear to be effective for treating anxiety in postmenopausal patients. Details: Preliminary clinical research in postmenopausal patients shows that taking a black cohosh extract, 64 mg daily for 2 weeks, then gradually increasing to 128 mg daily for a total of 12 weeks, does not improve anxiety as measured on the Hamilton Anxiety Rating (HAM-A) scale, when compared with placebo (35897).
• Breast cancer. It is unclear if oral black cohosh is beneficial for breast cancer treatment or prevention. Details: One observational study suggests that the use of black cohosh supplements is associated with a decreased risk of breast cancer (35841); however, other population-based studies found no difference (17412,35896). In females diagnosed with breast cancer, one observational study found that black cohosh extract was associated with prolonged disease-free survival (35845). A small observational study in patients with ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) suggests that taking isopropanolic black cohosh extract 20 mg twice daily for 2-6 weeks prior to breast surgery does not impact breast cancer cellular proliferation, tumor volume, invasive disease upgrade rates, or hormone levels including estradiol, and follicle-stimulating hormone when compared to baseline (111714). The validity of these effects is limited by a lack of a comparator group.
• Breast cancer-related hot flashes. Evidence for the use of oral black cohosh for hot flashes associated with breast cancer is conflicting. Details: Preliminary open-label trials show that taking black cohosh extracts can reduce hot flashes in females with a history of breast cancer (13169,14423). However, higher-quality randomized controlled trials show that black cohosh does not reduce hot flashes in these patients (7054,15161).
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is unclear if oral black cohosh reduces the risk of CVD. Details: Preliminary clinical research in postmenopausal adults shows that taking a specific black cohosh extract called CR BNO 1055 (Klimadynon Uno, Bionorica) 40 mg daily, in conjunction with endurance exercise, for 10 weeks does not reduce cardiovascular disease risk measured by the Framingham Risk score when compared with endurance exercise or light exercise alone (35908).
• Cognitive function. It is unclear if oral black cohosh is beneficial for improving cognitive function in postmenopausal patients. Details: In one preliminary clinical trial, taking a black cohosh extract 128 mg daily for 12 months did not significantly improve performance on memory and attention tests when compared with placebo in postmenopausal patients (19553).
• Cough. Although there has been interest in using oral black cohosh for cough, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black cohosh for this purpose.
• Dysmenorrhea. Although there has been interest in using oral black cohosh for dysmenorrhea, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black cohosh for this purpose.
• Infertility. It is unclear if oral black cohosh is beneficial for female infertility. Details: One small clinical study in patients with unexplained infertility shows that taking black cohosh rhizome dry extract (Klimadynon, Bionorica) 120 mg on days 1-12 of the menstrual cycle, plus clomiphene citrate 150 mg daily on days 3-7, increases the pregnancy rate by 23% when compared with clomiphene citrate alone (35858). Another small clinical study in patients with unexplained infertility shows that taking black cohosh (Klimadynon, Bionorica) 120 mg plus clomiphene citrate 150 mg results in similar pregnancy rates when compared with ethinyl estradiol 100 mcg plus clomiphene citrate (35902).
• Insect repellent. Although there has been interest in using topical black cohosh as an insect repellent, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black cohosh for this purpose.
• Migraine headache. Oral black cohosh has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: In one preliminary clinical trial, taking one tablet of a phytoestrogen formulation containing black cohosh extract 25 mg, soy extract 75 mg, and dong quai extract 50 mg twice daily for 24 weeks reduced the frequency of menstrual migraines when compared with placebo (35797).
• Osteoarthritis. Oral black cohosh has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking a specific combination product containing black cohosh 35 mg per tablet, with white willow bark, sarsaparilla, poplar bark, and guaiacum resin (Reumalex, Gerard House Ltd.), two tablets daily for 2 months improves pain when compared with placebo in patients with osteoarthritis. However, no improvement in joint function was found (35946).
• Osteoporosis. There is contradictory evidence on the benefit of black cohosh for osteoporosis treatment or prevention. Details: In one preliminary clinical trial, postmenopausal patients taking specific black cohosh products (Klimadynon/Menofem, Bionorica AG; Remifemin, Schaper & Brümmer) 40 mg daily for 12 weeks had increased levels of bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (bALP), which is a marker of bone formation (14330,35865). However, in another clinical trial, bone mineral density was no different in patients taking a specific black cohosh extract (Klimadynon/Klimadynon Uno/Menofem, Bionorica) 40 mg daily for 12 months when compared with two control groups (35908). It is not known if these black cohosh products can decrease the risk of fracture.
• Parturition. It is unclear whether oral black cohosh is beneficial or safe for labor induction. Details: It has been reported that as many as 45% of nurse-midwives have used black cohosh to induce labor in pregnant adults at term (1122). However, there is no reliable clinical evidence that black cohosh is safe or effective for this use (15035).
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). It is unclear if oral black cohosh is beneficial for improving fertility in patients with PCOS. Details: A small clinical study in patients with PCOS and a history of infertility shows that taking black cohosh 10 mg twice daily for 10 days along with clomiphene citrate 50 mg twice daily for 5 days, both starting on the second day of the menstrual cycle, does not increase endometrial thickness or the size or number of mature follicles when compared with clomiphene citrate alone (107905). Pregnancy and live birth rates were not evaluated in this study.
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Although there has been interest in using oral black cohosh for PMS, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black cohosh for this purpose.
• Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Oral black cohosh has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with RA shows that taking a specific combination product containing black cohosh 35 mg per tablet, with white willow bark, sarsaparilla, poplar bark, and guaiacum resin (Reumalex, Gerard House Ltd.) two tablets daily for 2 months improves pain when compared with placebo. However, no improvement in joint function was observed (35946).
• Sexual dysfunction. It is unclear if oral black cohosh is beneficial for improving sexual dysfunction. Details: A small observational study in adults with breast cancer on tamoxifen suggests that taking a dry extract of black cohosh 20 mg is associated with improvements in sexual response scores, which include sexual parameters such as desire, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction, and pain but not arousal when compared to baseline (111635). The validity of these effects is limited by a small sample size and the lack of a comparator group.
• Warts. Although there has been interest in using topical black cohosh for warts, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black cohosh for this purpose. More evidence is needed to rate black cohosh for these uses.

(Read more about BLACK COHOSH)

EFFECTIVE

• Dyspepsia. Oral calcium carbonate is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as an antacid. Details: Taking calcium carbonate orally as an antacid is effective for treating dyspepsia (1843). Calcium carbonate has FDA approval as an antacid.
• Hyperkalemia. Intravenous calcium gluconate is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for preventing hyperkalemia-induced cardiac abnormalities. Details: Administering calcium gluconate intravenously can reverse electrocardiographic changes and arrhythmias induced by hyperkalemia (12946). Intravenous calcium gluconate is FDA-approved for preventing hyperkalemia-induced cardiac abnormalities.
• Hypocalcemia. Oral calcium treats and prevents hypocalcemia. Intravenous calcium is used to treat severe hypocalcemia. Details: Taking calcium orally is effective for treating and preventing hypocalcemia. Intravenous calcium gluconate, acetate, gluceptate, or chloride is effective for severe hypocalcemia or hypocalcemic tetany (12928).
• Kidney failure. Oral calcium carbonate or calcium acetate is used as a phosphate binder during kidney failure. Details: Taking calcium carbonate or calcium acetate orally is effective as a phosphate binder. Calcium acetate (PhosLo) appears to control hyperphosphatemia better than sevelamer (Renagel) (12943,12944,38990). Calcium citrate is not recommended for this purpose because it increases aluminum absorption and does not bind phosphate as efficiently as calcium acetate or calcium carbonate (21631). Some clinical research also shows that taking calcium orally reduces blood pressure in patients with kidney failure (975).

LIKELY EFFECTIVE

• Corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis. Oral calcium in combination with vitamin D prevents bone density loss that occurs during long-term treatment with corticosteroids. Details: Taking calcium in combination with vitamin D as adjunctive therapy seems to be effective for reducing bone mineral density loss in people using corticosteroids long-term (982,1046,1830,1831,1832,4462,4463,4464,4465,4466)(4467,12945,38493). One specific product used in clinical research is Oscal (Marion Merrel Dow Inc.), which contains elemental calcium 500 mg per tablet plus vitamin D 125 IU per tablet (982). Another product used is Oscal 250 + D (SmithKline Beecham Healthcare), which contains elemental calcium 250 mg and vitamin D 125 IU per tablet (1046).
• Hyperparathyroidism. Oral calcium reduces parathyroid hormone levels in patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism due to kidney failure. Details: Taking calcium orally reduces parathyroid hormone levels in patients with kidney failure and secondary hyperparathyroidism (1827,1828,1829,39174,39425). In elderly women, the combination of calcium and vitamin D reverses secondary hyperparathyroidism and reduces hip fracture risk (8818). Also, population research suggests increased calcium intake from the diet and supplements reduces the risk of primary hyperparathyroidism in women. Supplemental intakes of at least 500 mg/day and dietary intakes of approximately 1100 mg/day are considered to be protective (91353).
• Osteoporosis. Adequate calcium intake, from the diet and/or supplements, is recommended for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Details: The Bone Health and Osteoporosis Foundation (BHOF) recommends ensuring adequate calcium intake in line with the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) by age, along with adequate vitamin D intake, for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in adults over 50 years of age. Supplementation can be used to augment dietary intake when adequate dietary intake is not feasible (109425). In the US and Canada, foods containing at least 200 mg calcium with less phosphorous content than calcium can be labelled with a health claim regarding the relationship between adequate calcium intake and a reduced risk for osteoporosis (11940,102148). However, calcium supplementation is not recommended specifically for the primary prevention of osteoporosis. The US Preventive Task Force (USPSTF) states that the current evidence is insufficient to assess the balance of benefits and harms of vitamin D and calcium supplementation, alone or in combination, for the primary prevention of fractures in community dwelling adults without osteoporosis (95695). Also, calcium supplements do not seem to be effective for preventing loss of bone mineral density (BMD) during lactation (988), in patients who have had bone marrow transplantation (1817), or in patients who have had renal transplantation (4823,38736,38871). Maximal bone growth occurs in the teenage years, and then BMD in females remains relatively constant until age 30-40. After age 40, bone loss typically occurs at rates of 0.5% to 1% per year. In males, this occurs several decades later. Bone loss is more pronounced if dietary calcium intake is below the RDA, which is the case for many Americans (2571,2578). One meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in healthy children 7-14 years old shows that fortifying food with calcium 250-1000 mg daily for up to 24 months modestly improves femoral neck BMD, but not hip or spine BMD. However, the included trials did not supplement vitamin D (107232). During the 5 years immediately after menopause, calcium supplementation has very little effect on bone loss (2569,2570,2575,2576). The rapid loss of estrogen causes a high bone resorption rate, which increases serum calcium levels and therefore decreases intestinal absorption of calcium (2570). After this period, the typical rate of bone loss is 2% per year (2572,2576). Taking calcium 1000-1600 mg daily as carbonate, citrate, lactate gluconate, or citrate malate salt decreases this rate by 0.25% to 1% annually (977,979,981,2569,2571,2572,2575,2576,2578,6850)(38978,38980,39064). The greatest reductions (1% or more) are seen in the first 1-2 years of supplementation when bone remodeling foci can be filled (2569,2576). After this period, the differences in rate of loss between supplemented and non-supplemented females are closer to 0.25% per year (2569,2577). A meta-analysis of clinical evidence suggests that there is no additional benefit after 4 years (38980). Small clinical studies have found that continuous calcium supplementation at an average daily dose of 1050 mg, started after menopause and continued for 1.5-4 years, may reduce fracture rates by 26% when compared with no calcium supplementation. The largest of these studies was conducted in nursing home residents who also received daily vitamin D; the benefits of calcium, specifically, are unclear (39386). Some research also suggests that calcium and vitamin D improves primary prevention of osteoporotic fractures in some older individuals with osteoporosis, particularly the elderly and those who are no longer community dwelling (12930,38875,38849,39026,109471). However, not all research is positive. One large clinical trial in elderly adults with a low-trauma fracture show that taking calcium 1000 mg daily with or without vitamin D 800 IU daily for 2-7 years does not reduce the risk of a second fracture when compared with placebo (13073). Another clinical study shows that taking calcium 1000 mg daily plus vitamin D 800 IU daily does not prevent a second fracture in elderly patients, or prevent a first fracture in elderly patients with other risk factors such as low body weight (less than 58 kg, 127.6 pounds), smoking, family history of hip fracture, or fair or poor self-reported health (12929). Also, some exploratory research suggests that supplements may need to be continued indefinitely; in adults over 68 years of age, any effects of 2 years of calcium supplements on BMD appear to be lost within 2 years after discontinuing supplements (6853). Calcium has additive effects when used with other agents such as vitamin D, estrogens, or calcitonin. Whereas calcium alone generally reduces or prevents loss of BMD, combination with other agents can produce small increases in BMD ranging from 0.3% to 3.3% depending on the combination and dosages used (978,980,1836,2570,2571,2572,2576). However, one meta-analysis in healthy adults shows that fortifying foods with calcium 250-1000 mg daily, in conjunction with vitamin D supplementation, for up to 24 months does not improve BMD when compared with control (107232). The full potential of osteoporosis treatments cannot be realized without adequate calcium intake (2569,2570,2571,2572). Advise patients taking agents such as estrogens, calcitonin, bisphosphonates, or raloxifene (Evista) to ensure that their daily calcium intake meets the RDA. Use supplements if necessary. The usefulness of calcium in preventing osteoporosis in males is not as well-studied. Some observational research has found that calcium 870 mg daily is not associated with changes in BMD and bone loss in males (97201). However, clinical evidence suggests that taking calcium 1000 mg daily for 2 years might improve trabecular or cortical bone mass by 2% to 4% (980,8827,8873). Dietary supplementation with calcium and vitamin D seems to moderately reduce bone loss measured in the femoral neck, spine, and total body, and seems to reduce the incidence of nonvertebral fractures in older patients with osteopenia or low BMD (980).
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Adequate calcium intake seems to prevent symptoms of PMS. Details: There seems to be a link between low dietary calcium intake and symptoms of PMS (2004,6847,39007). Taking calcium 1000-1336 mg daily seems to significantly reduce depressed mood, water retention, and pain, especially if daily calcium intake is inadequate (1822,1823,1824,2004,95821). Calcium carbonate 1200 mg daily seems to decrease PMS symptom scores by about 18% when compared with placebo (1822). Increasing dietary calcium intake is also associated with a decreased risk of developing PMS. Consuming an average of 1283 mg of calcium per day from foods is associated with about a 30% lower risk of developing PMS compared with consuming an average of 529 mg daily (13094); however, taking calcium supplements does not appear to be associated with the risk of developing PMS.

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Colorectal cancer. Oral calcium seems to be beneficial for preventing colorectal cancer, especially in those with adequate vitamin D levels and normal body mass index (BMI). Details: Population studies have found that increased intake of dietary or supplemental calcium is associated with a reduced risk of colorectal cancer and colorectal adenomas (1047,8820,12120,38951,98898,98899). Clinical trials and meta-analyses of clinical research also show that taking calcium supplements 1.2-2 grams daily for up to 4 years can reduce the risk of colorectal adenoma recurrence by up to 29% (970,12118,12950,15267,34596,38718,39042,95817). However, not all research has been positive. Some meta-analyses of clinical research or observational studies suggest that taking calcium does not reduce the risk of familial adenomatous polyposis or colorectal cancer (34596,39042,39349). Other contradictory research suggests that postmenopausal females who take calcium 1000 mg daily plus vitamin D 400 IU daily do not have a reduced risk of developing colorectal cancer (14290); however, this finding may not be reliable due to the high baseline intake of calcium in study participants. The reason for these conflicting findings is not entirely clear. Vitamin D might be an important factor. People with lower than average vitamin D levels do not seem to get any benefit from calcium supplements (12118). Also, one meta-analysis of previous trials suggests that taking calcium 1200 mg daily reduces the risk of colorectal adenomas in people with a normal BMI, but not in those who are overweight or obese (99715). Despite this conflicting evidence, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a qualified health claim in 2005 stating that calcium supplements may reduce the risk of colorectal cancer and colorectal adenomas. However, the FDA has determined that there is little scientific evidence to support this claim (102366).
• Fetal bone mineralization. If calcium intakes are low during pregnancy, oral calcium seems to be beneficial for increasing fetal bone density. Details: With low dietary calcium intake (less than 562 mg elemental calcium daily) during pregnancy, calcium supplementation increases fetal bone mineralization and density. However, calcium supplementation does not offer any additional benefit if calcium intakes are adequate (3263,3264).
• Hypertension. Oral calcium seems to reduce blood pressure by a small amount. However, it is unclear if this reduction is clinically significant. Details: Many clinical trials and observational studies show that intake of calcium supplements or dietary calcium modestly reduces blood pressure in patients with or without hypertension, usually around 1-2 mmHg. Calcium seems to be more effective for certain subpopulations of patients, such as salt-sensitive people and patients with low baseline dietary calcium intake (945,972,974,976,984,1818,1819,1820,1821,6852)(13138,14406,38803,39063,39094,39221). Also, a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that calcium intake during pregnancy reduces systolic blood pressure in offspring by 1-2 mmHg (38852). However, a large-scale clinical trial in postmenopausal females shows that taking vitamin D (cholecalciferol) 400 IU daily in combination with elemental calcium 1000 mg daily does not lower blood pressure or reduce the risk of developing hypertension (16714). Additionally, a meta-analysis of 8 clinical trials shows that taking calcium in combination with vitamin D for up to 7 years has no effect on blood pressure (98861). The validity of this finding is limited by the poor methodological quality of the included studies. Some observational research suggests that calcium can reduce the risk for hypertension. Population research in females aged 45 years and older suggests that higher intake of calcium from both diet and supplement sources is linked to a lower risk of developing hypertension when compared to lower calcium intake (14265). In 2005, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a qualified health claim stating that calcium supplements may reduce the risk of hypertension. However, the FDA has concluded that this claim is based on supporting, rather than conclusive, evidence (102367).
• Osteomalacia. Oral calcium seems to reverse osteomalacia caused by very low calcium intakes. Details: Osteomalacia is commonly caused by vitamin D deficiency; however, very low calcium intake can also lead to osteomalacia in children and adults. Calcium supplementation can reverse osteomalacia caused by calcium deficiency. Along with appropriate vitamin D supplementation, individuals at risk of osteomalacia need sufficient calcium intake (94819).
• Pre-eclampsia. Oral calcium seems to reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia in high risk pregnancies, especially if calcium intakes are low. Details: Although there is some conflicting evidence (971,38756), most clinical research shows that taking calcium orally 1-2 grams daily reduces pregnancy-related hypertension and pre-eclampsia (973,1833,8828,39043,39319,39426,96480). Calcium appears to reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia by about 50% when compared with placebo. One meta-analysis of 19 controlled trials involving over 29,000 pregnancies found that for every 19 females treated with calcium, one episode of pre-eclampsia would be avoided (96480). Calcium appears to have the greatest effect in individuals at high-risk of pre-eclampsia or with low calcium levels, and when taken at greater than or equal to 20 weeks of gestation (15029,38497,96480,99714). In 2005, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a qualified health claim regarding the use of calcium supplements to reduce the risk of pregnancy-induced hypertension and pre-eclampsia. However, due to the limited and conflicting research available at that time, the FDA stated that this outcome was highly unlikely. Since then, large, high-quality clinical research has supported this finding. In fact, in 2016 the World Health Organization (WHO) released a recommendation to prescribe oral calcium supplementation 1.5-2 grams daily during pregnancies at high risk of pre-eclampsia if dietary calcium intakes are low, in order to prevent pre-eclampsia (97347).
• Rickets. Oral calcium seems to reverse rickets caused by very low calcium intakes. Details: Rickets is commonly caused be vitamin D deficiency; however, very low calcium intake can also lead to rickets. Calcium supplementation can reverse rickets caused by calcium deficiency (94819). A small clinical study in children with nutritional rickets shows that taking calcium 500-2000 mg daily for 24 weeks improves radiographically measured rickets caused by calcium deficiency. Rickets seems to improve more rapidly with calcium 1000 mg compared to calcium 500 mg. However, increasing the calcium dose to 2000 mg daily is not more beneficial than calcium 1000 mg daily (98904).
• Tooth retention. Oral calcium with vitamin D seems to help with tooth retention in the elderly population. Details: A clinical trial in the elderly population shows that taking calcium citrate malate 500 mg daily along with vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) 700 IU daily orally for 3 years reduces the risk of tooth loss by about 52% when compared with placebo (8816).

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Breast cancer. Oral calcium does not seem to be beneficial for breast cancer prevention. Details: Although some population research disagrees (15631,39041,95811,107237), most research shows that increased calcium intake is not associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer (15631,16715,98895,107236,107237). Subgroup analyses of population research suggest that calcium intake may reduce the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal, but not pre-menopausal, adults (15631,107237). Another subgroup analysis in a large meta-analysis of population research also suggests that dietary intake may reduce estrogen receptor(ER)-negative breast cancer, but not ER-positive breast cancer (107236). However, most other research has not evaluated the effects of calcium supplementation or intake on breast cancer subtypes. The best evidence to date, from a large scale clinical trial (Women's Health Initiative), shows that taking vitamin D (cholecalciferol) 400 IU daily plus calcium 1000 mg daily for 7 years after menopause does not reduce the risk of developing invasive breast cancer at the end of the study and 5 years after the end of the intervention (16715,98895).
• Fractures. Although oral calcium prevents fractures in osteoporosis, most evidence shows that calcium does NOT prevent factures in people who do not have osteoporosis. See Osteoporosis discussion for more information on the use of calcium for this purpose. Details: The most recent and robust meta-analysis of clinical research shows that calcium supplementation with or without vitamin D is NOT associated with reduced fractures in older adults without osteoporosis (95822). A large-scale study in postmenopausal females aged 50-79 years suggests calcium 1000 mg plus vitamin D 400 IU daily for 7 years only modestly improves bone mineral density (BMD) and does not significantly reduce fracture risk. This lack of effect may have been due to low adherence to the treatment regimen. In those who were 80% adherent, the combination of calcium plus vitamin D reduced the risk of hip fracture by about 29% (14282). Also, some clinical research shows that taking calcium carbonate 1000 mg and vitamin D 400 IU for 5 years does not attenuate loss of height after menopause when compared with placebo (95810). Additional meta-analyses of clinical and observational evidence suggest that calcium supplementation is not associated with a reduced risk of vertebral or nonvertebral fractures, such as hip fractures (38589,38888,98895). Some other research has suggested that calcium in combination with vitamin D reduces fracture risk in older patients without osteoporosis (980,1836,8818,12930,12933,12952,38849,102145,107235); however, this research is confounded by a number of variables, including the presence of hormonal therapy and differing levels of fracture risk at baseline (1836,8818,95822). Conflicting findings on this topic might also be due to genetic differences in patient populations. A population analysis of the Women's Health Initiative study found that, in older females with the lowest genetic susceptibility to low bone mineral density (BMD), taking calcium with vitamin D is associated with a reduction in fracture risk. However, in females with a higher genetic susceptibility to low BMD, there is no association between supplementation and fracture risk. This might be because individuals with a lower susceptibility to low BMD are also more responsive to calcium and vitamin D supplementation (97357). As of April 2018, the U.S. Preventative Services Task Force (USPSTF) concludes that there is insufficient evidence to determine whether supplementing with vitamin D >400 IU daily along with calcium >1000 mg daily is safe and effective for preventing fractures in community dwelling adults without vitamin D deficiency, osteoporosis, or a history of fracture. USPSTF recommends against supplementing with calcium 1000 mg daily or less along with vitamin D 400 IU daily or less for preventing primary fractures in community-dwelling postmenopausal females (95695).
• Obesity. Oral calcium does not seem to improve weight loss. Details: Observational research has found that adults and children with low calcium intake are more likely to gain weight, have a higher body mass index (BMI), and be overweight or obese when compared to people with high calcium intake (12124,12125,12126,12127,14265). Additional observational research has found that increasing calcium intake is associated with weight loss in females; the results in males have been conflicting (12127,15602,15603). Despite these findings from observational research and a few small clinical studies (12128,15397,14438,98905), most clinical research has found that increased calcium intake does not increase weight loss (12052,13138,15396,15399,38985,39004,97356). The most recent meta-analysis of 20 clinical studies shows that daily dietary and supplemental calcium intake that meets the dietary reference intake (DRI) of 1000 mg or more daily does not increase weight loss in overweight individuals or patients with obesity when compared with intake below the DRI (95813). An older meta-analysis of 13 clinical trials also shows that increased dietary and supplemental calcium intake does not increase weight loss (15605).
• Overall mortality. Oral calcium does not seem to reduce overall mortality. Details: While some population research has found that calcium taken in combination with vitamin D in older females is associated with a lower risk of death (97353), most evidence shows that calcium, with or without vitamin D, has no effect on all-cause mortality (93533,97308).

INEFFECTIVE

• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). Oral calcium does not reduce the risk of developing CVD and may actually increase risk in some patients. Details: Clinical research shows that calcium does not decrease CVD risk. Several separate meta-analyses of clinical and population research involving over 50,000 patients show that taking calcium 600-1200 mg daily for up to 7 years does not reduce the risk of CVD-related outcomes, including stroke and myocardial infarction, cardiovascular death, or overall mortality (39018,91350,92994,93533,97308,98902,107231,107233). No association was found between total dietary or supplemental calcium intake with or without vitamin D and the risk of CVD or mortality (91350,93533,97308). In fact, some population and clinical research has found that when calcium is used alone or with vitamin D, there is an INCREASED risk of CVD and coronary heart disease (38077,107233). However, other clinical research disagrees (93533). One meta-analysis of high-quality randomized controlled trials shows that taking calcium for 2-7 years increases the risk of CVD and coronary heart disease by 1.1-1.2 times when compared with control. However, the majority of the included research evaluated postmenopausal females and it is unclear if this finding is applicable to other populations (107233).
• Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. Intravenous calcium does not prevent nerve pain in patients given oxaliplatin. Oral calcium has not been evaluated for this purpose. Details: While pooled analyses of cohort studies and randomized controlled trials suggest that calcium and magnesium infusion decreases the incidence of oxaliplatin-induced neurotoxicity, a meta-analysis of only randomized controlled trials shows that the infusion has no effect in preventing neurotoxicity (90028,90029,90031). Additionally, clinical trials show that administering calcium gluconate 1 gram with magnesium sulfate 1 gram intravenously immediately before, or before and after, the administration of a single oxaliplatin cycle (90005), or over the entire 6-cycle course of oxaliplatin, does not improve symptoms of neurotoxicity when compared with placebo (96474).
• Myocardial infarction (MI). Oral calcium does not prevent MI. When taken in the absence of vitamin D, oral calcium may increase the risk of MI. Details: Population research has found that increased dietary intake of calcium is associated with a decreased risk of MI (91350). However, a 2010 meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking calcium at a dose of at least 500 mg daily is associated with an approximate 30% INCREASE in the risk of MI in patients over the age of 40. According to this analysis, one additional case of MI will occur for every 69 patients that take calcium for 5 years (17482). A more recent meta-analysis of high-quality randomized controlled trials shows that taking calcium for 2-7 years increases the risk of MI by 1.2 times when compared with control. However, the majority of the included research studied postmenopausal females and it is unclear if this finding is applicable to other populations (107233) In contrast, other meta-analyses of clinical research have shown that taking calcium for up to 7 years is NOT associated with an increased risk of MI, including a meta-analysis that only included postmenopausal females (93533,107231). Reasons for these discrepancies are not entirely clear. It may relate to whether calcium is taken as monotherapy or in combination with vitamin D. When taken with vitamin D, which is commonly recommended, calcium supplementation does not appear to be associated with an increased risk of MI in postmenopausal females (93533). Also, the association between calcium supplementation and MI risk may be influenced by the amount of calcium consumed as part of the diet. Supplementation with calcium may be associated with an increased risk of MI in people with dietary calcium intake above 805 mg daily, but not in those with dietary calcium intake below 805 mg daily (17482)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Alcohol use disorder. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for alcohol use disorder. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking calcium carbonate 800 mg and vitamin D 200 IU orally daily for 14 days modestly reduces alcohol craving scores and withdrawal scores when compared with placebo in adults with alcohol dependence that are undergoing withdrawal. Taking calcium carbonate did not reduce the need for diazepam; however, the study may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups (107234).
• Atherosclerosis. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for atherosclerosis. Details: A population study has found that taking calcium 1.2 grams daily for 3 years has no effect on carotid intima thickness or carotid atherosclerosis incidence. A total calcium intake (dietary and supplemental) of at least 1794 mg daily in older females may be associated with a decreased risk of carotid atherosclerosis when compared with a total calcium intake below 1010 mg daily (97351).
• Autism spectrum disorder. It is unclear if oral calcium during pregnancy is beneficial for reducing the odds of autism spectrum disorder in the offspring. Details: A small observational study found that calcium supplementation during pregnancy is associated with a 52% reduced odds of an autism spectrum disorder in the offspring (98900).
• Cancer. Oral calcium alone does not seem to prevent cancer. It is unclear if oral calcium with vitamin D is beneficial for preventing cancer. Details: Taking calcium alone does not seem to significantly reduce the risk of cancer (12118,15629). The role of calcium in cancer prevention when taken along with vitamin D is controversial, as conflicting results exist. One clinical trial shows that healthy postmenopausal females who take supplemental calcium 1400-1500 mg daily plus vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) 1100 IU daily have a 60% lower relative risk for developing cancer of any type. Approximately 25 postmenopausal females would need to take this combination for 4 years to prevent one occurrence of cancer (15629). However, a more recent clinical study shows that healthy postmenopausal females who take supplemental calcium 1500 mg daily plus vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) 2000 IU daily do not have a reduced risk of cancer at 4 years (93943). Reasons for the disparate results are not entirely clear. The discrepancies do not appear to be related to baseline vitamin D levels or different study populations. It is possible that, given the 10-year time lapse between the two publications, the discrepancies result from differences in cancer detection capability. Also, since cancer risk was a secondary outcome measure in the earlier study and a primary outcome measure in the more recent study, it is possible that the discrepancies result from differences in statistical methodologies. The effect of vitamin D and calcium on cancer risk in males and younger patients is not known. There is also interest in using calcium for reducing the risk of hematological malignancies. An analysis of the Women's Health Initiative study shows that taking calcium 1000 mg daily in combination with vitamin D3 400 IU for up to 10 years is associated with a 20% reduction in the risk of hematologic malignancies when compared with placebo. However, no effect on hematologic malignancy related mortality was seen (97354).
• Depression. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for depression prevention. Details: Population research has found no association between a higher dietary intake of calcium and the risk of depression when compared with a lower dietary intake of calcium (96480).
• Diabetes. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for type 2 diabetes prevention. Details: Some population research has found that a higher intake of calcium from diet or supplements, alone or in combination with vitamin D, is associated with a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes when compared with lower calcium intake (14265,16713,96473). However, population research is often limited by confounding variables. For example, one analysis found that any beneficial effect might be influenced by concomitant magnesium intake (96473). Furthermore, other population research has found that serum calcium levels higher than 9.6 mg/dL are associated with greater risk of developing diabetes in Chinese adults with osteoporosis. This study is limited because it was not determined whether increased serum calcium was due to increased calcium intake or another factor such as parathyroid function (95815).
• Dysmenorrhea. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for reducing pain associated with dysmenorrhea. Details: Clinical research shows that taking calcium carbonate 1000 mg with vitamin D 5000 IU daily for three menstrual cycles does not reduce pain when compared with placebo in patients with primary dysmenorrhea (95821). However, calcium carbonate 1000 mg taken alone seems to reduce pain when compared with placebo.
• Endometrial cancer. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for endometrial cancer prevention. Details: A meta-analysis of population research suggests that calcium supplements may reduce the risk of endometrial cancer, but dietary calcium does not seem to have any effect (38893).
• Fall prevention. It is unclear if oral calcium with vitamin D is beneficial for preventing falls. Details: Research suggests that calcium in combination with vitamin D, but not calcium alone, might prevent falls by decreasing body sway and normalizing systolic blood pressure (6362,11939,39038). Some experts think the combination of calcium and vitamin D may be important (11916). Preliminary clinical research in adults residing in a health care facility shows that taking vitamin D supplements while increasing dietary calcium and protein for 2 years reduces falls by 11% when compared with standard diets. Intervention diets were supplemented with milk, yogurt, and cheese to provide calcium 1142 mg and protein 69 grams daily (107235). There might also be different effects in females compared to males. In one study, females aged 65 years or older who took vitamin D 700 IU plus calcium citrate 500 mg daily over a 3-year period had a 46% lower risk of falling. However, this combination did not decrease falls in males (14291).
• Fluorosis. Oral calcium has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Taking calcium orally, in combination with ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and vitamin D, seems to be effective for reducing excessive fluoride levels in children and improving symptoms of fluorosis in children aged 6-12 years (990).
• Heart failure. It is unclear if oral calcium in combination with vitamin D is beneficial for preventing heart failure. Details: Based on a secondary analysis of a large-scale clinical trial (Women's Health Initiative), taking calcium 1000 mg with vitamin D 400 IU daily does not reduce the risk of heart failure in the overall population or in individuals at high risk. However, in a subgroup of postmenopausal females without risk factors for heart failure, calcium and vitamin D supplementation might reduce the risk of developing heart failure by about 37% (97307).
• Hypercholesterolemia. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for hypercholesterolemia. Details: Some evidence shows that taking calcium carbonate 400 mg three times daily reduces low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels by 4% and increases high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels by 4% after 6 weeks of treatment when used in combination with a low-fat diet (American Heart Association Step 1) (2557). In contrast, a study in females with dyslipidemia shows that taking calcium 800 mg daily for 2 years might INCREASE total cholesterol levels by about 12 mg/dL when compared with placebo. This same study showed an association between calcium supplementation and an increase in total cholesterol levels and carotid intimal thickness in postmenopausal females, but not premenopausal females (97350). A recent meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials which included both healthy patients and patients with dyslipidemia shows that taking calcium 500-2000 mg daily and vitamin D 200-7142 IU daily modestly improves HDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels, but not LDL cholesterol levels, when compared with placebo. Subgroup analyses suggest that calcium and vitamin D supplementation is more effective in patients with dyslipidemia at baseline. It is unclear if this effect is due to calcium, vitamin D, or the combination (107227). However, other research shows that taking a specific supplement containing calcium 600 mg plus vitamin D 200 IU (Caltrate 600 D, Wyeth Consumer Healthcare Inc.) twice daily in combination with calorie restriction does not reduce total or LDL cholesterol levels when compared with placebo (15601).
• Lead toxicity. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for reducing blood levels of lead. Details: Lead is mobilized along with calcium from bone during pregnancy and lactation, resulting in increased serum concentrations of lead. One clinical study suggests that calcium supplementation does not significantly decrease these elevated lead concentrations (1586). However, another clinical study suggests that taking calcium reduces blood lead levels by 11% when compared with placebo, with greatest effects observed in those with high baseline levels of lead (38957).
• Lyme disease. Although there is interest in using oral calcium for Lyme disease, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of calcium for this condition.
• Metabolic syndrome. It is unclear if oral calcium alone or with vitamin D is beneficial for metabolic syndrome prevention. Details: Population research has found that a higher intake of calcium from diet and supplements alone, or in combination with vitamin D, is associated with a lower risk of developing metabolic syndrome when compared with lower calcium intake (14265,16713).
• Nephrotic syndrome. It is unclear if oral calcium with vitamin D is beneficial for preventing nephrotic syndrome. Details: Clinical research shows that taking calcium 500-1000 mg daily for 3 months in combination with vitamin D3 60,000 IU daily or weekly for 4 weeks has no effect on bone mineral density or the risk of relapse in children with steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome (97355).
• Nonmelanoma skin cancer. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for preventing keratinocyte carcinomas. Details: In middle aged and older adults recently diagnosed with a colorectal adenoma, clinical research shows that taking calcium 1200 mg daily as calcium carbonate for 3-5 years does not reduce the incidence of keratinocyte cancer when compared with placebo over a median of 8 years. A sub-group analysis shows that taking calcium alone or with vitamin D3 1000 IU daily reduced the risk of invasive cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma by a moderate amount, but had no effect on the risk of basal cell carcinoma (104622).
• Oral mucositis. When used in combination with fluoride treatments, a calcium phosphate mouth rinse seems to prevent and reduce mucositis-related pain in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Details: A small clinical study in patients undergoing HSCT shows that using a particular mouth rinse (Caphosol, EUSA Pharma) containing calcium phosphate, in combination with fluoride treatments, reduces days of mucositis, the duration of pain, and the dose and days of morphine used when compared with placebo and fluoride treatment (38611).
• Ovarian cancer. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for ovarian cancer prevention. Details: An older meta-analysis of 12 cohort studies found that dietary calcium intake is not associated with a reduced risk of ovarian cancer (38792). However, a more recent pooled analysis of 15 cohort and case-control studies has found that the highest intake of dietary or dairy calcium is associated with a 20% lower risk of ovarian cancer when compared to the lowest intake (97349).
• Postpartum depression. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for reducing postpartum depression risk. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking calcium 2 grams daily beginning at 11-21 weeks gestation reduces depression at 12 weeks postpartum when compared with placebo. However, no benefit is seen at 6 weeks postpartum (39447).
• Pregnancy-related leg cramps. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for preventing leg cramps during pregnancy. Details: A small clinical study shows that taking calcium 1 gram twice daily (as a mixture of salts) for 2 weeks can reduce pregnancy-related leg cramps during the second half of pregnancy when compared with no treatment (2567).
• Prostate cancer. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for prostate cancer prevention. Details: Some clinical research shows that taking calcium 1200 mg daily might decrease the risk of developing prostate cancer (14133). However, some epidemiological research suggests that consuming very high doses of calcium, over 2000 mg daily, might actually increase the risk of developing prostate cancer (14134). Some epidemiological research also suggests that doses greater than 1500 mg daily increase the risk of poorly differentiated, clinically advanced, and fatal prostate cancer (14132). Consumption of dairy products has also been weakly linked to a modest increase in risk of prostate cancer (98894). However, contradictory research suggests that there is no association between dietary intake of calcium and overall risk of prostate cancer (14131,14132,104630).
• Stroke. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for stroke prevention. Details: Some population research has found that increasing dietary calcium intake is associated with a decreased risk of ischemic stroke (4822,38678). However, other population research has found that increasing dietary calcium intake is not associated with a decreased risk of stroke (91350). One meta-analysis of high-quality randomized controlled trials shows that taking calcium for 2-7 years does not affect the risk of stroke when compared with control. However, the majority of the included research evaluated postmenopausal females, and it is unclear if this finding is applicable to other populations (107233).
• Vertigo. Oral calcium with vitamin D might reduce positional vertigo; the effect of calcium when used alone is unclear. Details: A large clinical study in adults with recurrent benign paroxysmal positional vertigo shows that taking calcium 500 mg and vitamin D 400 IU twice daily for one year reduces annual recurrence of vertigo by 27% when compared with no treatment. The number needed to treat to prevent vertigo was 3.7 (103681). It is unclear if this benefit is due to vitamin D, calcium, or the combination. More evidence is needed to rate calcium for these uses.

(Read more about CALCIUM)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Biotin has been safely used in doses up to 300 mg daily for up to 6 months. A tolerable upper intake level (UL) has not been established (1900,6243,95662,102965). ...when applied topically as cosmetic products at concentrations of 0.0001% to 0.6% biotin (19344).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used intramuscularly and appropriately (8468,111366).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately. Biotin has been safely used at adequate intake doses of 5-25 mcg daily for up to 6 months (173,6243,19347,19348,111365). A tolerable upper intake level (UL) has not been established.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately. Biotin has been safely used at the adequate intake (AI) dose of 30 mcg daily during pregnancy and 35 mcg daily during lactation. It has also been used in supplemental doses of up to 300 mcg daily (6243,7878). A tolerable upper intake level (UL) has not been established.

(Read more about BIOTIN)

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Black cohosh has been safely used in some studies lasting up to a year (15036,15158,17091,19553,35908); however, most studies have lasted only up to 6 months (141,4614,4620,7054,9437,9494,13143,13184,14330,14423)(14424,15037,15889,15893,35824,35852,35853,35858,35865,35897)(35902,35904,35946,35964,95525,103269). There is concern that black cohosh might cause liver damage in some patients. Several case reports link black cohosh to liver failure or autoimmune hepatitis (4383,10692,11906,12006,13144,14469,15160,16721,16722,16723)(16724,16725,16726,16727,35857,107906). However, the evidence that black cohosh causes liver damage is not conclusive (17085). Until more is known, monitor liver function in patients who take black cohosh.

PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in pregnant patients who are not at term. Black cohosh might have hormonal effects and menstrual and uterine stimulant effects (15035). Theoretically, this might increase the risk of miscarriage; avoid using during pregnancy. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of black cohosh when used to induce labor.

LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally. Black cohosh might have hormonal effects. Theoretically, maternal intake of black cohosh might adversely affect a nursing child (15035). Until more is known, nursing patients should avoid taking black cohosh.

(Read more about BLACK COHOSH)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally or intravenously and appropriately. Calcium is safe when used in appropriate doses (7555,12928,12946,95817). However, excessive doses should be avoided. The Institute of Medicine sets the daily tolerable upper intake level (UL) for calcium according to age as follows: Age 0-6 months, 1000 mg; 6-12 months, 1500 mg; 1-8 years, 2500 mg; 9-18 years, 3000 mg; 19-50 years, 2500 mg; 51+ years, 2000 mg (17506). Doses over these levels can increase the risk of side effects such as kidney stone, hypercalciuria, hypercalcemia, and milk-alkali syndrome. There has also been concern that calcium intake may be associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and coronary heart disease (CHD), including myocardial infarction (MI). Some clinical research suggests that calcium intake, often in amounts over the recommended daily intake level of 1000-1300 mg daily for adults, is associated with an increased risk of CVD, CHD, and MI (16118,17482,91350,107233). However, these studies, particularly meta-analyses, have been criticized for excluding trials in which calcium was administered with vitamin D (94137). Many of these trials also only included postmenopausal females. Other analyses report conflicting results, and have not shown that calcium intake affects the risk of CVD, CHD, or MI (92994,93533,97308,107231). Advise patients not to consume more than the recommended daily intake of 1000-1200 mg per day and to consider total calcium intake from both dietary and supplemental sources (17484). Also, advise patients taking calcium supplements to take calcium along with vitamin D (93533).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in excessive doses. The National Academy of Medicine sets the daily tolerable upper intake level (UL) for calcium according to age as follows: 19-50 years, 2500 mg; 51 years and older, 2000 mg (17506). Doses over these levels can increase the risk of side effects such as kidney stones, hypercalciuria, hypercalcemia, and milk-alkali syndrome. There has also been concern that calcium intake may be associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and coronary heart disease (CHD), including myocardial infarction (MI). Some clinical research suggests that calcium intake, often in amounts over the recommended daily intake level of 1000-1300 mg daily for adults, is associated with an increased risk of CVD, CHD, and MI (16118,17482,91350,107233). However, these studies, particularly meta-analyses, have been criticized for excluding trials in which calcium was administered with vitamin D (94137). Many of these trials also only included postmenopausal females. Other analyses report conflicting results, and have not shown that calcium intake affects the risk of CVD, CHD, or MI (92994,93533,97308,107231). Advise patients to not consume more than the recommended daily intake of 1000-1200 mg per day and to consider total calcium intake from both dietary and supplemental sources (17484). Also, advise patients taking calcium supplements to take calcium along with vitamin D (93533).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately. Calcium is safe when used in appropriate doses (17506).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in excessive doses. The Institute of Medicine sets the daily tolerable upper intake level (UL) for calcium according to age as follows: 0-6 months, 1000 mg; 6-12 months, 1500 mg; 1-8 years, 2500 mg; 9-18 years, 3000 mg (17506). Doses over these levels can increase the risk of side effects such as kidney stones, hypercalciuria, hypercalcemia, and milk-alkali syndrome.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately (945,1586,3263,3264,17506). The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends prescribing oral calcium supplementation 1.5-2 grams daily during pregnancy to those with low dietary calcium intake to prevent pre-eclampsia (97347).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in excessive doses. The Institute of Medicine sets the same daily tolerable upper intake level (UL) for calcium according to age independent of pregnancy status: 9-18 years, 3000 mg; 19-50 years, 2500 mg (17506). Doses over these amounts might increase the risk of neonatal hypocalcemia-induced seizures possibly caused by transient neonatal hypoparathyroidism in the setting of excessive calcium supplementation during pregnancy, especially during the third trimester. Neonatal hypocalcemia is a risk factor for neonatal seizures (97345).

(Read more about CALCIUM)

(Read more about BIOTIN)

ATORVASTATIN (Lipitor) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Taking black cohosh with atorvastatin might increase the risk for elevated liver function tests.  Details In one case report, a patient taking atorvastatin (Lipitor) developed significantly elevated liver function enzymes after starting black cohosh 100 mg four times daily. Liver enzymes returned to normal when black cohosh was discontinued (16725). It is unclear whether the elevated liver enzymes were due to black cohosh itself or an interaction between atorvastatin and black cohosh.

CISPLATIN (Platinol-AQ) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black cohosh may reduce the clinical effects of cisplatin.  Details Animal research suggests that black cohosh might decrease the cytotoxic effect of cisplatin on breast cancer cells (13101).

CYTOCHROME P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Some research suggests that black cohosh might inhibit CYP2D6, but there is conflicting evidence.  Details Some clinical research suggests that black cohosh might modestly inhibit CYP2D6 and increase levels of drugs metabolized by this enzyme (13536). However, contradictory clinical research shows a specific black cohosh product (Remifemin, Enzymatic Therapy) 40 mg twice daily does not significantly inhibit metabolism of a CYP2D6 substrate in healthy study volunteers (16848). Until more is known, use black cohosh cautiously in patients taking drugs metabolized by CYP2D6.

ESTROGENS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black cohosh may alter the effects of estrogen therapy.  Details Some research suggests that black cohosh has estrogenic effects (4618,12064,15035,35831). This may enhance or inhibit the effects of estrogen therapy.

HEPATOTOXIC DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking black cohosh with hepatotoxic drugs may increase the risk of liver damage.  Details There is concern that black cohosh might be linked to cases of liver failure and autoimmune hepatitis (4383,10692,11906,11909,12006,13144,14469,15160,107906).

ORGANIC ANION-TRANSPORTING POLYPEPTIDE SUBSTRATES (OATP) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Black cohosh may inhibit one form of OATP, OATP2B1, which could reduce the bioavailability and clinical effects of OATP2B1 substrates.  Details In vitro research shows that black cohosh modestly inhibits OATP2B1 (35450). OATPs are expressed in the small intestine and liver and are responsible for the uptake of drugs and other compounds into the body. Inhibition of OATP may reduce the bioavailability of oral drugs that are substrates of OATP.

(Read more about BLACK COHOSH)

ALUMINUM Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium citrate might increase aluminum absorption and toxicity. Other types of calcium do not increase aluminum absorption.  Details Calcium citrate can increase the absorption of aluminum when taken with aluminum hydroxide. The increase in aluminum levels may become toxic, particularly in individuals with kidney disease (21631). However, the effect of calcium citrate on aluminum absorption is due to the citrate anion rather than calcium cation. Calcium acetate does not appear to increase aluminum absorption (93006).

BISPHOSPHONATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = C Calcium reduces the absorption of bisphosphonates.  Details Advise patients to take bisphosphonates at least 30 minutes before calcium, but preferably at a different time of day. Calcium supplements decrease absorption of bisphosphonates (12937).

CALCIPOTRIENE (Dovonex) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Taking calcipotriene with calcium might increase the risk for hypercalcemia.  Details Calcipotriene is a vitamin D analog used topically for psoriasis. It can be absorbed in sufficient amounts to cause systemic effects, including hypercalcemia (12938). Theoretically, combining calcipotriene with calcium supplements might increase the risk of hypercalcemia.

CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = D Intravenous calcium may decrease the effects of calcium channel blockers; oral calcium is unlikely to have this effect.  Details Intravenous calcium is used to decrease the effects of calcium channel blockers in the management of overdose. Intravenous calcium gluconate has been used before intravenous verapamil (Isoptin) to prevent or reduce the hypotensive effects without affecting the antiarrhythmic effects (6124). But there is no evidence that dietary or supplemental calcium when taken orally interacts with calcium channel blockers (12939,12947).

CEFTRIAXONE (Rocephin) Interaction Rating = Major Do not take this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Co-administration of intravenous calcium and ceftriaxone can result in precipitation of a ceftriaxone-calcium salt in the lungs and kidneys.  Details Avoid administering intravenous calcium in any form, such as parenteral nutrition or Lactated Ringers, within 48 hours of intravenous ceftriaxone. Case reports in neonates show that administering intravenous ceftriaxone and calcium can result in precipitation of a ceftriaxone-calcium salt in the lungs and kidneys. In several cases, neonates have died as a result of this interaction (15794,21632). So far there are no reports in adults; however, there is still concern that this interaction might occur in adults.

DIGOXIN (Lanoxin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Using intravenous calcium with digoxin might increase the risk of fatal cardiac arrhythmias.  Details Hypercalcemia increases the risk of fatal cardiac arrhythmias with digoxin (12940). However, one retrospective analysis of clinical data suggests that intravenous calcium does not increase the risk of dysrhythmias or mortality in patients receiving digoxin (38960).

DILTIAZEM (Cardizem, others) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, calcium may reduce the therapeutic effects of diltiazem.  Details Hypercalcemia can reduce the effectiveness of verapamil in atrial fibrillation (10574). Theoretically, calcium might increase this risk of hypercalcemia and reduce the effectiveness of diltiazem.

DOLUTEGRAVIR (Tivicay) Interaction Rating = Major Do not take this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium seems to reduce levels of dolutegravir.  Details Advise patients to take dolutegravir either 2 hours before or 6 hours after taking calcium supplements. Pharmacokinetic research suggests that taking calcium carbonate 1200 mg concomitantly with dolutegravir 50 mg reduces plasma levels of dolutegravir by almost 40%. Calcium appears to decrease levels of dolutegravir through chelation (93578).

ELVITEGRAVIR (Vitekta) Interaction Rating = Major Do not take this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium seems to reduce levels of elvitegravir.  Details Advise patients to take elvitegravir either 2 hours before or 2 hours after taking calcium supplements. Pharmacokinetic research suggests that taking calcium along with elvitegravir can reduce blood levels of elvitegravir through chelation (94166).

LEVOTHYROXINE (Synthroid, others) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium seems to reduce the absorption and effectiveness of levothyroxine.  Details Advise patients to take levothyroxine and calcium supplements at least 4 hours apart. Calcium reduces levothyroxine absorption, probably by forming insoluble complexes (5082). Calcium carbonate supplements reduce effectiveness of levothyroxine in patients with hypothyroidism (5081,5082,6137).

LITHIUM Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, concomitant use of calcium and lithium may increase this risk of hypercalcemia.  Details Clinical research suggests that long-term use of lithium may cause hypercalcemia in 10% to 60% of patients (38953). Theoretically, concomitant use of lithium and calcium supplements may further increase this risk.

QUINOLONE ANTIBIOTICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium seems to reduce the absorption of quinolone antibiotics.  Details Advise patients to take oral quinolones at least 2 hours before or 4-6 hours after calcium supplements or calcium-fortified foods. Taking calcium at the same time as oral quinolones can reduce quinolone absorption. Calcium binds to quinolones in the gut (4412,10339,21638,38570).

RALTEGRAVIR (Isentress) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium may reduce levels of raltegravir.  Details Pharmacokinetic research shows that taking a single dose of calcium carbonate 3000 mg along with raltegravir 400 mg twice daily modestly decreases the mean area under the curve of raltegravir, but the decrease does not necessitate a dose adjustment of raltegravir (94164). However, a case of elevated HIV-1 RNA levels and documented resistance to raltegravir has been reported for a patient taking calcium carbonate 1 gram three times daily plus vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) 400 IU three times daily in combination with raltegravir 400 mg twice daily for 11 months. It is thought that calcium reduced raltegravir levels by chelation, leading to treatment failure (94165).

SOTALOL (Betapace) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium seems to reduce the absorption of sotalol.  Details Advise patients to separate doses by at least 2 hours before or 4-6 hours after calcium. Calcium appears to reduce the absorption of sotalol, probably by forming insoluble complexes (10018).

TETRACYCLINE ANTIBIOTICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = C Calcium seems to reduce the absorption of tetracycline antibiotics.  Details Advise patients to take oral tetracyclines at least 2 hours before, or 4-6 hours after calcium supplements. Taking calcium at the same time as oral tetracyclines can reduce tetracycline absorption. Calcium binds to tetracyclines in the gut (1843).

THIAZIDE DIURETICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = C Taking calcium along with thiazides might increase the risk of hypercalcemia and renal failure.  Details Thiazides reduce calcium excretion by the kidneys (1902). Using thiazides along with moderately large amounts of calcium carbonate increases the risk of milk-alkali syndrome (hypercalcemia, metabolic alkalosis, renal failure). Patients may need to have their serum calcium levels and/or parathyroid function monitored regularly.

VERAPAMIL (Calan, others) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, calcium may reduce the therapeutic effects of verapamil.  Details Hypercalcemia can reduce the effectiveness of verapamil in atrial fibrillation (10574). Theoretically, use of calcium supplements may increase this risk of hypercalcemia and reduce the effectiveness of verapamil.

(Read more about CALCIUM)

General ...Orally and topically, biotin is generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects: None.

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, high-dose biotin has been rarely associated with mild diarrhea. Transient mild diarrhea was reported by 2 patients taking biotin 300 mg daily (95662).

Pulmonary/Respiratory ...In one case report in France, a 76-year-old female frequent traveler developed eosinophilic pleuropericarditis after taking biotin 10 mg and pantothenic acid 300 mg daily for 2 months. She had also been taking trimetazidine for 6 years (3914). Whether eosinophilia in this case was related to biotin, pantothenic acid, other substances, or patient-specific conditions is unknown. There have been no other similar reports.

(Read more about BIOTIN)

General ...Orally, black cohosh is generally well tolerated when used in typical doses.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Breast tenderness, dizziness, gastrointestinal upset, headache, irritability, rash, tiredness.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Endometrial hyperplasia and hepatotoxicity, although data are conflicting for both.

Cardiovascular ...A single case of reversible bradycardia has been reported for a 59-year-old female who took one tablet of a specific black cohosh product (Remifemin, Schaper & Brümmer) daily for 2 weeks. The adverse event was considered probably related to black cohosh use, although the exact mechanism by which black cohosh exerted this effect was unclear (35920).
There has been concern that, if black cohosh has estrogen-like effects, it could also potentially cause estrogen-like side effects including increased risk for thromboembolism and cardiovascular disease. These outcomes have not been specifically assessed in long-term trials; however, some research shows that a specific black cohosh extract (CimiPure, PureWorld) does not significantly affect surrogate markers for thromboembolism and cardiovascular risk such as fibrinogen, cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, or insulin levels compared to placebo (16850).

Dermatologic ...Black cohosh has been associated with skin irritation and rashes (7054,10987,14330,15889,35853). A case report describes a patient who developed cutaneous pseudolymphoma 6 months after starting a specific black cohosh extract (Remifemin). Symptoms resolved within 12 weeks of discontinuing black cohosh (15890).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, black cohosh can commonly cause gastrointestinal upset (4383,4615,4616,10988,13184,35824,35853,35965,103269,111714). Constipation and indigestion have also been reported (7054,35852).

Genitourinary ...Orally, black cohosh, including the specific black cohosh product Remifemin, may cause vaginal bleeding and breast tenderness in some postmenopausal patients (15889,35824). However, the frequency of these events seems to be less than that of tibolone, a prescription hormone medication used to treat symptoms of menopause (15889,35904).
Due to the potential estrogen-like effects, there is concern that black cohosh might increase the risk of endometrial hyperplasia. However, a specific black cohosh extract CR BNO 1055 (Klimadynon/Menofem, Bionorica AG) does not appear to cause endometrial hyperplasia. Clinical research in postmenopausal adults shows that taking 40 mg daily of this extract for 12 weeks does not significantly increase superficial cells when compared with placebo, and causes significantly fewer superficial cells when compared with conjugated estrogens (Premarin) (14330). Additional clinical research shows that taking 40 mg daily of this extract for a year does not increase the risk of endometrial hyperplasia or endometrial thickening in postmenopausal adults (15036). Another specific combination product containing black cohosh extract plus St. John's wort (Gynoplus, Jin-Yang Pharm) also does not significantly increase superficial cells compared to placebo after 12 weeks of treatment (15893). Some patients taking tamoxifen plus black cohosh have experienced endometrial hyperplasia and vaginal bleeding. However, these effects are more likely due to tamoxifen than black cohosh (7054).

Hepatic ...There is concern that black cohosh might cause liver disease, hepatotoxicity, or hepatitis. Adverse effects on the liver have not been documented in clinical studies. However, multiple case reports of liver toxicity, hepatitis, and abnormal liver function have been described in females taking black cohosh products alone or in combination with other herbs or drugs. In some cases, patients developed liver failure and required immediate liver transplantation (4383,10692,11909,12006,13144,14469,15160,16721,16722,16723) (16724,16727,35883,35888,35890,35895,89465,101592,107906). In one case, a female developed autoimmune hepatitis after 3 weeks of taking black cohosh. Symptoms resolved 2 weeks after discontinuing black cohosh (11906). In at least three cases, females have developed elevated liver enzymes and symptoms of hepatotoxicity after taking black cohosh products. Symptoms resolved and liver enzymes normalized within a week of discontinuing black cohosh (16725,16726). Analysis of two liver biopsies suggests that hepatotoxicity associated with black cohosh use results from the accumulation of 4HNE protein adducts in the cytoplasm of liver cells, which promotes the migration of lymphocytes to the affected area and induces an autoimmune response leading to troxis necrosis (89469).
However, many of these cases are poorly documented. Causality is possible based on some reports; however, other reports do not indicate that black cohosh is the probable cause of the events (15891,15892,16722,16723,16727,89465). Hepatitis can occur with no identifiable cause, raising the possibility that black cohosh and hepatitis might have been coincidental in some cases. Also, plant misidentification can occur, resulting in accidental substitution of a hepatotoxic plant (11910). Therefore, some experts argue that these cases do not provide conclusive evidence that black cohosh is responsible for liver disease (17085,35882,111634). Nonetheless, some countries require cautionary labeling on black cohosh products suggesting a risk of liver toxicity. The United States Pharmacopeia also recommends cautionary labeling on black cohosh products (16722). Until more is known about this potential risk, consider monitoring liver function in patients who take black cohosh.

Musculoskeletal ...One patient treated with black cohosh in a clinical trial discontinued treatment due to edema and arthralgia (35897).
Black cohosh has been linked to asthenia and muscle damage in one case. A 54-year-old female experienced asthenia with elevated creatinine phosphokinase (CPK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels while taking black cohosh. The patient had taken a specific black cohosh extract (Remifemin) for 1 year, discontinued it for 2 months, restarted it, and then experienced symptoms 2 months later. Symptoms began to resolve 10 days after discontinuing black cohosh (14299).

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, black cohosh may cause headache, dizziness, or tiredness (35852,35886). There is one case report of seizures in a female who used black cohosh, evening primrose oil, and chasteberry (10988).
Also, there has been a case report of severe complications, including seizures, renal failure, and respiratory distress, in an infant whose mother was given an unknown dose of black cohosh and blue cohosh at 42 weeks gestation to induce labor (1122,9492,9493). However, this adverse effect may have been attributable to blue cohosh.
In another case report, orobuccolingual dyskinesia, including tongue-biting, eating difficulties, and speech problems, was reported in a 46-year-old female who took two tablets containing black cohosh 20 mg and Panax ginseng 50 mg daily for 15 months. The patient's condition improved after stopping treatment with the herbs and taking clonazepam 2 mg daily with baclofen 40 mg daily (89735).

Ocular/Otic ...There is some concern that black cohosh might increase the risk of retinal vein thrombosis due to its estrogenic activity. In one case, a patient with protein S deficiency and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) experienced retinal vein thrombosis 3 days after taking a combination product containing black cohosh 250 mg, red clover 250 mg, dong quai 100 mg, and wild yam 276 mg (13155). It is unclear if this event was due to black cohosh, other ingredients, the combination, or another factor.

Oncologic ...There is some concern that black cohosh may affect hormone-sensitive cancers, such as some types of breast or uterine cancer, due to its potential estrogenic effects. However, evidence from a cohort study suggests that regular use of black cohosh is not associated with the risk of breast or endometrial cancer (17412,111634).

Psychiatric ...A 36-year-old female with a 15-year history of depression developed mania with psychotic and mixed features after taking a black cohosh extract 40 mg daily. The patient gradually recovered after stopping black cohosh and receiving treatment with antipsychotics (104517).

Pulmonary/Respiratory ...There has been a case report of severe complications, including seizures, renal failure, and respiratory distress, in an infant whose mother was given an unknown dose of black cohosh and blue cohosh at 42 weeks gestation to induce labor (1122,9492,9493). However, this adverse effect may have been attributable to blue cohosh.

Renal ...There has been a case report of severe complications, including seizures, renal failure, and respiratory distress, in an infant whose mother was given an unknown dose of black cohosh and blue cohosh at 42 weeks gestation to induce labor (1122,9492,9493). However, this adverse effect may have been attributable to blue cohosh.

Other ...While rare, weight gain has been reported in some patients taking black cohosh. However, in most cases the causality could not be established. A review of the literature, including published case reports, spontaneous reports to adverse event databases, and clinical trials, suggests that black cohosh does not cause weight gain (107907).

(Read more about BLACK COHOSH)

General ...Orally and intravenously, calcium is well-tolerated when used appropriately.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Belching, constipation, diarrhea, flatulence, and stomach upset.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Case reports have raised concerns about calciphylaxis and kidney stones.

Cardiovascular ...There has been concern that calcium intake may be associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and coronary heart disease (CHD), including myocardial infarction (MI). Some clinical research suggests that calcium intake, often in amounts over the recommended daily intake level of 1000-1300 mg daily for adults, is associated with an increased risk of CVD, CHD, and MI (16118,17482,91350,107233). However, these results, particularly meta-analyses, have been criticized for excluding trials in which calcium was administered with vitamin D (94137). Many of these trials also only included postmenopausal females. Other analyses report conflicting results, and have not shown that calcium intake affects the risk of CVD, CHD, or MI (92994,93533,97308,107231). Reasons for these discrepancies are not entirely clear. It may relate to whether calcium is taken as monotherapy or in combination with vitamin D. When taken with vitamin D, which is commonly recommended, calcium supplementation does not appear to be associated with an increased risk of CVD, CHD, or MI (93533,107231). Also, the association between calcium supplementation and CVD, CHD, or MI risk may be influenced by the amount of calcium consumed as part of the diet. Supplementation with calcium may be associated with an increased risk of MI in people with dietary calcium intake above 805 mg daily, but not in those with dietary calcium intake below 805 mg daily (17482). To minimize the possible risk of CVD, CHD, or MI, advise patients not to consume more than the recommended daily intake of 1000-1200 mg and to consider total calcium intake from both dietary and supplemental sources (17484). While dietary intake of calcium is preferred over supplemental intake, advise patients who require calcium supplements to take calcium along with vitamin D, as this combination does not appear to be associated with an increased risk of MI (93533).
Rarely, calcium intake can increase the risk of calciphylaxis, which usually occurs in patients with kidney failure. Calciphylaxis is the deposition of calcium phosphate in arterioles, which causes skin ulcers and skin necrosis. In a case report, a 64-year-old female with a history of neck fracture, sepsis, and ischemic colitis presented with painful leg ulcers due to calciphylaxis. She discontinued calcium and vitamin D supplementation and was treated with sodium thiosulfate and supportive care (95816).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, calcium can cause belching, flatulence, nausea, gastrointestinal discomfort, and diarrhea (1824,1843,12950,38803). Although constipation is frequently cited as an adverse effect of calcium, there is no scientific substantiation of this side effect (1824,1843,1844,1845,12950,38978). Calcium carbonate has been reported to cause acid rebound, but this is controversial (12935,12936).

Oncologic ...There is some concern that very high doses of calcium might increase the risk of prostate cancer. Some epidemiological evidence suggests that consuming over 2000 mg/day of dietary calcium might increase the risk for prostate cancer (4825,12949). Additional research suggests that calcium intake over 1500 mg/day might increase the risk of advanced prostate cancer and prostate cancer mortality (14132). Consumption of dairy products has also been weakly linked to a small increase in prostate cancer risk (98894). However, contradictory research suggests no association between dietary intake of calcium and overall prostate cancer risk (14131,14132,104630). More evidence is needed to determine the effect of calcium, if any, on prostate cancer risk.

Renal ...Kidney stones have been reported in individuals taking calcium carbonate 1500 mg daily in combination with vitamin D 2000 IU daily for 4 years (93943).

(Read more about CALCIUM)