Resveracel [Discontinued] by Thorne Research

EFFECTIVE

• Homocystinuria. Oral betaine anhydrous is effective at reducing plasma homocysteine levels in patients with homocystinuria associated with cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) deficiency, 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) deficiency, or cobalamin cofactor metabolism (cbl) defect. Details: Clinical research shows that taking oral betaine anhydrous reduces plasma homocysteine levels by 20% to 30% when compared with placebo in adults and children with several types of homocystinuria, including CBS deficiency, MTHFR deficiency, and cbl defect (698). Observational studies have also found that betaine anhydrous reduces plasma homocysteine levels as monotherapy, in combination with other treatments, such as pyridoxine, folate, and cobalamin, and in patients refractory to pyridoxine treatment (145,698,34956). A specific betaine anhydrous product (Cystadane, Recordati Rare Diseases Inc.) is approved by the US FDA for homocystinuria. Oral betaine anhydrous is initiated at a dose of 100 mg/kg daily in children under 3 years of age and a dose of 3 grams twice daily in children 3 years and older, then titrated to effect. Although some patients have taken up to 20 grams daily, some clinical research suggests that doses above 150 mg/kg daily do not provide additional benefit (698).

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Hyperhomocysteinemia. Oral betaine anhydrous decreases plasma homocysteine levels in people with hyperhomocysteinemia; however, any effects on cardiovascular sequela and other clinical outcomes are unclear. Details: Most clinical research in adults with normal or mildly elevated plasma homocysteine levels (<25 micromol/L) shows that taking betaine anhydrous 3-6 grams daily orally for up to 12 weeks can modestly decrease plasma homocysteine levels by 5.5% to 15% when compared with control (6810,16451,16452,34894,34896,34902,34904,34925,34936). Some research indicates that oral doses of betaine anhydrous up to 4 grams daily can lower plasma homocysteine levels without an adverse effect on lipid levels (105813). However, it is not clear whether any reduction in plasma levels of homocysteine results in a decreased risk for cardiovascular disease. In patients with kidney failure, clinical research shows that taking betaine anhydrous 4 grams daily lowers levels of plasma homocysteine after methionine loading, but does not affect fasting levels, when compared with control (16455). However, taking this dose of betaine anhydrous in combination with folate 5 mg daily does not seem to have additive homocysteine-lowering effects in patients with kidney failure when compared with folate alone (34885,34957,34963). A very small clinical study in children with hyperhomocysteinemia secondary to pyridoxine non-responsive cystathionine beta-synthase (pnrCBS) or cobalamin C (cblC) deficiencies shows that taking betaine anhydrous 100 or 250 mg/kg daily in divided doses for one month leads to similar reductions in total plasma homocysteine concentrations, suggesting that an increased dose is not beneficial in the setting of pediatric pnrCBS and cblC deficiencies. The researchers noted that increased doses of betaine anhydrous cause proportional increases in methionine concentrations, which can induce severe hypermethioninemia in patients with pnrCBS, possibly leading to increased intracranial pressure and cerebral edema. In contrast, increases in methionine and S-adenosylmethionine concentrations are desirable in patients with cblC deficiency since low concentrations of both are implicated in the pathology of cblC deficiency (111374).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Angelman syndrome. Oral betaine anhydrous has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in children with Angelman syndrome shows that taking betaine anhydrous (Cystadane, Recordati Rare Diseases, Inc.) 100-200 mg/kg daily or betaine anhydrous 6-12 grams daily for 12 months, in combination with folate, folic acid derivatives, creatine, and/or vitamin B12, does not prevent seizures or improve cognitive, motor, or language development, when compared with placebo or baseline (34932,34945).
• Athletic performance. It is unclear if oral betaine anhydrous improves athletic performance; small clinical trials have yielded conflicting findings that may be related to age, training status, and biological sex. Details: Small clinical trials in males with and without strength training experience shows that taking betaine anhydrous 2-2.5 grams daily for 10-15 days, either alone or in combination with resistance training or blood flow restriction, does not improve muscle power, strength, or performance on bench press, leg press, or squat exercises when compared with placebo (34940,34941,34947,34954,111373). In aerobic exercise training, a small clinical study in healthy untrained males shows that taking betaine anhydrous 1.25 grams twice daily with 300 mL of a sports beverage for 2 weeks does not improve aerobic capacity or performance during exhaustive endurance exercise when compared with placebo (105550). Similarly, a small clinical study in trained male runners shows that taking betaine anhydrous 5 grams once with 1000 mL of a sports beverage after becoming dehydrated does not improve long-distance running or sprinting after rehydration when compared with placebo (34916). Additional clinical research in males and females who have undergone at least 6 months of CrossFit training shows that taking betaine anhydrous 1.25 grams twice daily for 6 weeks while continuing to train does not improve muscle strength, body composition, aerobic capacity, or anaerobic performance when compared with placebo (105549). However, other research shows that betaine anhydrous benefits certain aspects of athletic performance in particular subgroups. One small clinical study in healthy, active males shows that taking betaine anhydrous 2.5 grams daily for 2 weeks improves subjective fatigue scores during exercise when compared with placebo (34941). Another small clinical study in active but untrained young females shows that taking betaine anhydrous (BetaPower, Finnfeeds) 2.5 grams daily for 8 weeks in combination with a structured resistance training program reduces body fat percentage and body fat mass, but does not improve muscle strength, when compared with placebo (98525). Another small clinical study in active females shows that taking betaine anhydrous 1.2 grams twice daily for 2 weeks improves power output during sprinting, but not oxygen uptake, when compared with placebo (107950). Betaine anhydrous has also been studied in adolescents. Preliminary clinical research in trained adolescent soccer players shows that taking betaine 1 gram twice daily orally with 300 mL water for 14 weeks improves muscle power, agility, and sprint time, but not muscle strength, when compared with placebo (108654).
• Colorectal adenoma. It is unclear if oral betaine anhydrous reduces the risk of colorectal adenoma. Details: Preliminary population research has found that high dietary betaine intake is not associated with a reduced risk of colorectal adenoma when compared with low dietary betaine intake (14845).
• Depression. Oral betaine anhydrous has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with major depression shows that taking a specific combination product (DDM Metile, Omeopiacenza) containing betaine anhydrous 125 mg and S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe) 250 mg orally twice daily for 12 months improves depression symptoms when compared with amitriptyline 75 mg daily. After 12 months, patients treated with the combination product showed an average improvement in depression scores of 38%, compared with 18% in patients treated with amitriptyline (90107). It is unclear if this effect is due to betaine anhydrous, SAMe, or the combination.
• Dry mouth. It is unclear if topical betaine anhydrous is beneficial in patients with dry mouth. Details: Applying betaine anhydrous 4% topically twice daily in a toothpaste for 2 weeks reduces symptoms of dry mouth when compared with baseline (6812). Other preliminary clinical research in adults with dry mouth shows that using a specific mouthwash product (Xeros Dentaid) that contains betaine anhydrous 1.33%, xylitol 3.3%, and sodium fluoride 0.05%, each evening for 4 weeks improves dry mouth symptoms when compared with baseline (34944). It is unclear if this effect is due to betaine anhydrous, other ingredients, or the combination. Additionally, the validity of the findings from these studies is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Fibrocystic breast disease. Although there has been interest in using oral betaine anhydrous for fibrocystic breast disease, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of betaine anhydrous for this purpose.
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Oral betaine anhydrous has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking a combination of betaine anhydrous 100 mg, melatonin 6 mg, L-tryptophan 200 mg, vitamin B6 25 mg, folic acid 10 mg, vitamin B12 50 mcg, and methionine 100 mg daily for 40 days reduces symptoms of GERD in more patients when compared with omeprazole 20 mg daily. Symptom improvement occurred in 100% of patients who took this combination supplement, compared with only 66% of patients taking omeprazole (16011). It is unclear if this effect is due to betaine anhydrous, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Gingivitis. Topical betaine anhydrous has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study of patients with gingivitis shows that brushing with a toothpaste containing a combination of extra virgin olive oil, xylitol, and betaine anhydrous daily for 4 months decreases gingival bleeding and improves markers associated with gingival health when compared with placebo and commercial toothpaste (111372).
• Hepatitis C. Oral betaine anhydrous has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking pegylated interferon alpha and ribavirin in combination with betaine anhydrous (Cystadane, Recordati Rare Diseases, Inc.) and S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe) daily for 12 months induces early virological response in approximately 60% of patients with hepatitis C who were previously unresponsive to treatment with pegylated interferon alpha and ribavirin. However, sustained virological response only occurred in 10% of these patients (20465). The validity of this study is limited by the lack of a comparator group. Also, it is unclear if this effect is due to betaine anhydrous, SAMe, or the combination.
• Metabolic Syndrome. It is unclear if oral betaine anhydrous is beneficial in patients with metabolic syndrome. Details: A large observational study in older adults with overweight or obesity and metabolic syndrome has found that increased dietary intake of betaine for 1 year is associated with reduced body weight, waist circumference, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), body weight, and triglycerides and increased levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (111375).
• Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). It is unclear if oral betaine anhydrous is beneficial in patients with NASH. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking betaine anhydrous 10 grams twice daily orally for 12 months improves NASH scores when compared with placebo (34928). Taking betaine anhydrous also normalizes liver enzyme levels and reduces inflammation and fibrosis when compared with baseline (10631,34928).
• Obesity. It is unclear if oral betaine anhydrous is beneficial in patients with obesity. Details: Preliminary clinic research in obese adults on a reduced-calorie diet shows that taking betaine anhydrous 3 grams orally twice daily for 12 weeks does not reduce body weight or fat mass or improve resting energy expenditure when compared with placebo (16452). A meta-analysis of small randomized controlled trials that studied the effects of betaine anhydrous on body composition also shows that taking betaine 1.5-20 grams daily for 2-52 weeks does not reduce body mass, fat mass, or fat-free mass when compared with control. However, the validity of this study is limited by inclusion of obese, non-obese, and healthy patients (108653).
• Osteoarthritis. Although there has been interest in using oral betaine anhydrous for osteoarthritis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of betaine anhydrous for this purpose.
• Rett syndrome. Oral betaine anhydrous has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in female children with Rett syndrome shows that taking a combination of folate 15 mg and betaine anhydrous 6-12 grams orally daily for 12 months does not improve motor function, growth, or development when compared with placebo. In addition, one subgroup analysis suggests that taking the combination product may reduce head circumference growth rate (34922).
• Sunburn. Topical betaine anhydrous has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in healthy adults shows that applying a specific cream (Physiogel AI), which contains betaine anhydrous 0.36%, N-palmitoylethanolamine 0.3%, N-acetylethanolamine 0.21%, and sarcosine 0.24%, daily for one month prior to ultraviolet (UV) light exposure can reduce UV-induced redness when compared with placebo. However, application of this cream only once 20 minutes prior to UV exposure does not have any effect (34905). It is unclear if any benefits are due to betaine anhydrous, other ingredients, or the combination. More evidence is needed to rate betaine anhydrous for these uses.

(Read more about BETAINE ANHYDROUS)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Although there is interest in using oral nicotinamide riboside for AMD, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of nicotinamide riboside for this condition.
• Alzheimer disease. Although there is interest in using oral nicotinamide riboside for Alzheimer disease, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of nicotinamide riboside for this condition.
• Ataxia telangiectasia. It is unclear if oral nicotinamide riboside improves ataxia telangiectasia. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults and children with ataxia telangiectasia shows that taking nicotinamide riboside orally 25 mg/kg daily for 4 months improves ataxia scores by 11% to 17% when compared with baseline. Ataxia scores also worsened after treatment withdrawal. The validity of this study is limited by the lack of a comparator group (107703).
• Athletic performance. It is unclear if oral nicotinamide riboside improves athletic performance in healthy adults. Details: One small study in young, healthy males shows that taking a specific nicotinamide riboside product (NAD+ Cell Regenerator, Life Extension) 500 mg two hours before exercise does not improve measures of muscle strength, muscle fatigue, or oxygen consumption when compared with placebo (102036). Given the small sample size, this study is limited by a lack of adequate power to detect significant differences between groups.
• Diabetes. Although there is interest in using oral nicotinamide riboside for diabetes, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of nicotinamide riboside for this condition.
• Heart failure. It is unclear if oral nicotinamide riboside is beneficial for heart failure. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with heart failure and a left ventricle ejection fraction of less than 40% shows that taking nicotinamide riboside 250 mg orally twice daily, titrated weekly by 250 mg to a final dose of 1000 mg orally twice daily, for 12 weeks does not improve 6-minute walk test distance or quality of life scores when compared with placebo. However, the study may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups (110506).
• Hyperlipidemia. It is unclear if oral nicotinamide riboside improves lipid levels. Details: One small clinical study in sedentary males with obesity and elevated blood lipids shows that taking nicotinamide riboside (Niagen, ChromaDex) 1000 mg twice daily for 12 weeks does not improve total cholesterol or low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol when compared with placebo (94745).
• Hypertension. It is unclear if oral nicotinamide riboside reduces blood pressure. Details: One small clinical study in patients with and without hypertension shows that taking nicotinamide riboside (Niagen, ChromaDex) 500 mg twice daily for 6 weeks non-significantly reduces systolic and diastolic blood pressure by around 4 mmHg and 2 mmHg, respectively, when compared with placebo. The effect seems to be more pronounced in patients with elevated blood pressure at baseline (94744).
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Oral nicotinamide riboside has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with NAFLD shows that taking a combination product containing nicotinamide riboside 125 mg and pterostilbene 25 mg (Basis, Elysium Health), 2-4 tablets orally daily for 26 weeks does not improve liver function test levels or liver fat content when compared with placebo (110508).
• Obesity. It is unclear if oral nicotinamide riboside improves weight loss. Details: Two small clinical studies in adults with obesity shows that taking nicotinamide riboside (Niagen, ChromaDex) 1000 mg once or twice daily for 6-12 weeks does not reduce body weight or improve insulin sensitivity, glucose metabolism, or lipid levels when compared with placebo (94745,104935).
• Parkinson disease. It is unclear if oral nicotinamide riboside improves Parkinson disease. Details: Very preliminary clinical research in adults with newly diagnosed Parkinson disease shows that taking nicotinamide riboside 500 mg orally twice daily for 4 weeks does not improve Parkinson disease scores when compared with placebo. However, the study may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups (110504).
• Physical performance. It is unclear if oral nicotinamide riboside improves physical performance in older adults. Details: One small clinical study in healthy, elderly males shows that taking a specific nicotinamide riboside product (NAD+ Cell Regenerator, Life Extension) 500 mg two hours before exercise seems to improve some measures of muscle strength and fatigue, but not oxygen consumption, when compared with placebo. Additionally, muscle strength, as measured by isometric peak torque, was improved in these older patients when compared with younger males taking the same product (102036). More evidence is needed to rate nicotinamide riboside for these uses.

(Read more about NICOTINAMIDE RIBOSIDE)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Hemorrhoids. Oral pagoda tree flower has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical trial in adults with active hemorrhoids shows that taking a sophora flower formula, containing pagoda tree, oriental arborvitae, schizonepeta, and bitter orange, 2 grams daily for 2 weeks, does not improve symptoms of hemorrhoids when compared with placebo (99963).
• Menopausal symptoms. It is unclear if oral pagoda tree fruit is beneficial for patients with menopausal symptoms. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with mild to moderate menopausal symptoms shows that taking a specific pagoda tree fruit extract (Rexflavone, Rexgene Biotech Co. Ltd.) 175 mg twice daily for 12 weeks reduces overall menopausal symptom scores by an additional 30% when compared with placebo. However, there was no effect on hot flashes, insomnia, nervousness, headache, or vaginal dryness (99966). More evidence is needed to rate pagoda tree for these uses.

(Read more about PAGODA TREE)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Ulcerative colitis. Limited clinical research shows that taking phosphatidylcholine products may improve clinical and remission scores in adults with ulcerative colitis. Details: Clinical research suggests that taking slow-release, phosphatidylcholine-rich phospholipids (Sterpur P-30 Granulat, Stern-Lecithin and Soja GmbH) improves symptoms and remission rate in patients with ulcerative colitis (68839,93389,93390,105728). A pooled analysis of 3 small randomized clinical trials in adults with chronic, active, ulcerative colitis at a single site shows that taking this specific form of phosphatidylcholine 1-4 grams daily for 3 months increases the odds of achieving clinical remission by 9.7 times when compared with placebo. Overall, 49% of the patients taking phosphatidylcholine achieved clinical remission. Taking phosphatidylcholine also improved quality of life and clinical improvement scores. In one study, this product also decreased the need for steroids, resulting in complete withdrawal of steroid therapy without exacerbation of disease in 80% of patients (93390). However, most patients in these studies were not treated with other standard therapies for ulcerative colitis, such as immunosuppressants and aminosalicylic acids. Subgroup analyses by dose suggest that the effective dose of this product is at least 1 gram daily; however, taking 3-4 grams daily may be more effective (93389,105728). In patients not responsive to mesalamine, some preliminary clinical research suggests taking LT-02 (Lipid Therapeutics GmbH), a modified-release formula of phosphatidylcholine, 3.2 grams daily for 12 weeks, improves symptoms of ulcerative colitis. Overall disease activity was improved by 52%, compared with 33% in those taking placebo. The effects on remission rate and mucosal healing were unclear; however, response rates were increased from 60% in the placebo group to 83% in the phosphatidylcholine group. In an 8-week follow-up, relapse was also less likely in patients treated with this product (93387).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Acne. Topical phosphatidylcholine has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that applying a topical cream containing niacinamide and linoleic acid-rich phosphatidylcholine (4% niacinamide-phospholipidic; N-PHCL emulsion) once daily for 12 weeks improves skin hydration and reduce acne lesions and inflammation when compared with a 1% clindamycin cream or a carrier-only cream in patients 15 years and older with moderate acne (93388).
• Aging. Although there has been interest in using oral phosphatidylcholine for aging, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of phosphatidylcholine for this purpose.
• Alcohol-related liver disease. It is unclear if oral phosphatidylcholine is beneficial in patients with alcohol-related liver disease. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with acute alcoholic hepatitis shows that taking polyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine 6 grams orally daily for 24 months does not increase survival when compared with placebo (68843).
• Alzheimer disease. Although there has been interest in using oral phosphatidylcholine for Alzheimer disease, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of phosphatidylcholine for this purpose.
• Angina. Although there has been interest in using intravenous phosphatidylcholine for angina, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of phosphatidylcholine for this purpose.
• Anxiety. Although there has been interest in using oral phosphatidylcholine for anxiety, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of phosphatidylcholine for this purpose.
• Atherosclerosis. Although there has been interest in using intravenous phosphatidylcholine for atherosclerosis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of phosphatidylcholine for this purpose.
• Atopic dermatitis (eczema). Although there has been interest in using oral phosphatidylcholine for atopic dermatitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of phosphatidylcholine for this purpose.
• Bipolar disorder. Although there has been interest in using oral phosphatidylcholine for bipolar disorder, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of phosphatidylcholine for this purpose.
• Dementia. It is unclear if oral phosphatidylcholine is beneficial in patients with dementia. Details: Population research in a sample of 1259 men in Finland suggests that high daily intake of phosphatidylcholine is associated with a 28% lower risk of developing dementia when compared with low daily intake, over a mean follow-up of about 22 years (103178).
• Fatty deposits. It is unclear if subcutaneous phosphatidylcholine is beneficial in patients with fatty deposits. Details: Very low quality clinical research shows that administering subcutaneous injections of phosphatidylcholine 125 mg-250 mg every 7-15 days can reduce localized fatty deposits on the chin, thigh, hips, abdomen, back, neck, and elsewhere, based on subjective visual assessments, when compared with baseline (15621,15625,15627). Improvements appear to last for 2-3 years or longer (15621,15627). In one study, phosphatidylcholine injections markedly or moderately reduce localized fatty deposits on the face in about 80% of patients for a period of up to 3 years based on subjective patient self-assessment (15621).
• Hepatic encephalopathy. It is unclear if oral phosphatidylcholine is beneficial in patients with hepatic encephalopathy. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking polyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine 1050 mg daily for 6-8 weeks, either orally or through a nasogastric tube, does not improve recovery from encephalopathy compared with control in patients with acute or subacute liver failure. However, polyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine seems to reduce mortality compared to control in patients with subacute, but not acute, liver failure (68835).
• Hepatitis A. It is unclear if oral phosphatidylcholine is beneficial in patients with hepatitis A. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking phosphatidylcholine 900 mg orally daily for 12 weeks does not seem to reduce serum bilirubin or liver enzyme levels in patients with hepatitis A when compared with no intervention (5225).
• Hepatitis B. It is unclear if oral phosphatidylcholine is beneficial in patients with hepatitis B. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults undergoing interferon treatment for hepatitis B shows that taking phosphatidylcholine 1.8 grams orally daily for 24 weeks improves clinical response when compared with placebo (5226). Other preliminary clinical research in patients with chronic active hepatitis B shows that taking phosphatidylcholine 3 grams orally improves histological disease scores when compared with control (5224).
• Hepatitis C. Oral phosphatidylcholine has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults undergoing interferon treatment for hepatitis C shows that taking phosphatidylcholine 1.8 grams orally daily for 24 weeks improves clinical response when compared with placebo (5226).
• Hypercholesterolemia. Although there has been interest in using intravenous phosphatidylcholine for hypercholesterolemia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of phosphatidylcholine for this purpose.
• Hyperlipidemia. Although there has been interest in using oral phosphatidylcholine for hyperlipidemia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of phosphatidylcholine for this purpose.
• Hyperlipoproteinemia. Oral phosphatidylcholine has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking polyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine 1.8 grams daily for 28 days in combination with clofibrate does not significantly reduce total cholesterol, triglycerides, or phospholipids compared to clofibrate alone in patients with primary hyperlipoproteinemia of Fredrickson Types II or IV. However, taking the combination of polyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine plus clofibrate seems to significantly attenuate the relative increase in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol when compared with clofibrate alone (68840).
• Infant development. It is unclear if oral phosphatidylcholine is beneficial for infant development. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking phosphatidylcholine (PhosChol, Nutrasal) 5 grams daily, containing choline 750 mg daily, from 18 weeks' gestation to 90 days postpartum does not improve cognitive function in the infant at 10-12 months of age when compared with corn oil placebo (93386).
• Lipoma. It is unclear if subcutaneous phosphatidylcholine is beneficial in patients with lipoma. Details: An anecdotal report suggests that injecting a phosphatidylcholine solution directly into a lipoma can shrink the tumor by about 35%. However, in this report a major inflammatory reaction occurred, resulting in undesirable fibrotic changes to the tissue and eventual surgical excision of the lipoma (15622).
• Memory. It is unclear if oral phosphatidylcholine is beneficial for memory. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking a single dose of phosphatidylcholine 25 grams (PC-55, TwinLab) orally can improve some measures of memory in healthy college students when compared with placebo (5228).
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It is unclear if oral phosphatidylcholine is beneficial in patients with NAFLD. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking phosphatidylcholine 600 mg orally three times daily for 24 weeks qualitatively improves liver echogenicity and structure on an ultrasound scan, suggesting a reduction in hepatic steatosis, when compared to baseline. There is also a small decrease in liver function test values, but with considerable variability both at baseline and at 24 weeks (103176,103177). Preliminary clinical evidence also suggests that taking a combination of the milk thistle constituent silybin, phosphatidylcholine, and vitamin E (Realsil, Instituto Biochimico Italiano) orally twice daily for 12 months improves liver function tests (LFTs) and liver histology when compared with placebo in people with NAFLD (63244). It is unclear if this effect is due to phosphatidylcholine, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Periorbital fat pad herniation. It is unclear if subcutaneous phosphatidylcholine is beneficial in patients with periorbital fat pad herniation. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that injecting phosphatidylcholine 20 mg subcutaneously every 2 weeks markedly reduces lower eyelid fat pads in people with bulging fat pads due to herniation when compared to baseline. In some people, benefits appeared to last for a period of 9 months to 2 years or longer (15623,15628).
• Peripheral arterial disease (PAD). Although there has been interest in using oral phosphatidylcholine for PAD, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of phosphatidylcholine for this purpose.
• Peritoneal dialysis. It is unclear if oral phosphatidylcholine is beneficial in patients with peritoneal dialysis. Details: Very preliminary clinical research shows that taking phosphatidylcholine 900 mg orally daily for 8 weeks does not improve ultrafiltration in peritoneal dialysis when compared to baseline (5222).
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Although there has been interest in using oral phosphatidylcholine for PMS, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of phosphatidylcholine for this purpose.
• Tardive dyskinesia. It is unclear if oral phosphatidylcholine is beneficial in patients with tardive dyskinesia. Details: Preliminary clinical research taking phosphatidylcholine 30 grams orally daily for 6 weeks does not improve tardive dyskinesia symptoms when compared with placebo (5223). More evidence is needed to rate phosphatidylcholine for these uses.

(Read more about PHOSPHATIDYLCHOLINE)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). Intranasal resveratrol seems to be beneficial for reducing allergic rhinitis symptoms in adults and children. Details: Some clinical research shows that intranasal resveratrol with carboxymethyl-beta-glucan can improve symptoms of allergic rhinitis (91332,97339). One clinical study in adults with allergic rhinitis shows that using an intranasal spray containing resveratrol 0.1% three times daily for 4 weeks reduces nasal symptoms and improves quality of life scores when compared with placebo (97339). A study in children aged 4-17 years with pollen-induced allergic rhinitis shows that using an intranasal spray containing resveratrol 0.05% three times daily for 2 months improves itching, sneezing, runny nose, and nasal obstruction and reduces use of rescue medication when compared with placebo (91332).
• Obesity. Oral resveratrol seems to be beneficial for weight loss in individuals with overweight or obesity. However, it is unlikely to be beneficial for improving most metabolic parameters in this population. Details: A meta-analysis of 28 clinical trials shows that taking resveratrol modestly decreases body weight by 0.5 kg, body mass index (BMI) by 0.17 kg/m2, and waist circumference by 0.8 cm when compared with placebo or no intervention. This analysis included studies of individuals with normal weight, overweight, and obesity, with or without type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, or other chronic conditions. A subgroup analysis suggests that individuals with obesity have a greater response to resveratrol. In these individuals, taking resveratrol 8-3000 mg daily resulted in an average weight reduction of 1.15 kg and a BMI reduction of 0.3 kg/m2 when compared with placebo. The greatest impact on body weight and BMI occurred with resveratrol doses of no more than 500 mg daily and treatment durations of at least 3 months (100696). However, it is unclear whether any improvements are clinically significant.

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). Oral resveratrol does not seem to be beneficial for CVD prevention. Details: Population research suggests that a higher dietary intake of resveratrol is not associated with a reduced risk of CVD when compared with a lower dietary intake (91334). Also, a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking resveratrol for up to 6 months does not improve any measures of plasma lipids, including total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, or triglycerides in patients at high risk for CVD (91333). While one preliminary clinical study shows that taking resveratrol 10 mg daily for 3 months improves left ventricular function by about 1% and endothelial function when compared to baseline in patients with a history of myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease, the improvements are very small and blood pressure and markers of inflammation do not appear to be improved (91330).
• Hypercholesterolemia. Oral resveratrol does not seem to be beneficial for hypercholesterolemia. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that resveratrol is unlikely to be beneficial for improving blood lipids when compared with placebo in patients with hypercholesterolemia. In the meta-analysis, studied populations included people who are overweight or obese, as well as patients with hypertension, type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), angina, and dyslipidemia (105181). Although there was a small reduction in total cholesterol levels of approximately 7 mg/dL, resveratrol did not improve levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, or triglycerides (105181). Also, an analysis of results from clinical research shows that taking resveratrol for up to 6 months does not improve any measures of plasma lipids, including total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, or triglycerides in patients at high risk for cardiovascular disease (91333). Also, clinical research in healthy humans shows that taking resveratrol 500 mg orally daily for 30 days increases levels of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and apolipoprotein B (112944). Another meta-analysis identified more promising results; however, any effect on blood lipids may not be considered clinically significant. This meta-analysis included 17 clinical studies enrolling 968 participants with dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, coronary artery disease, overweight or obesity, or stroke. Resveratrol reduced total cholesterol by approximately 10 mg/dL, LDL by approximately 6 mg/dL, and triglycerides by approximately 9 mg/dL, but did not improve HDL, when compared with placebo. However, most of the included studies were small and utilized heterogenous dosing regimens, with doses ranging from 10-3000 mg daily for 4-48 weeks (110020).
• Metabolic syndrome. Oral resveratrol does not seem to be beneficial for metabolic syndrome. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking resveratrol does not improve blood pressure when compared with placebo in patients with metabolic syndrome or related disorders (102513). A similar meta-analysis shows that taking resveratrol does not improve levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, triglycerides, or liver enzymes. There was a small reduction in total cholesterol levels of approximately 7 mg/dL (105181). However, only 3-4 of the papers included in these meta-analyses, which included 28-31 publications, evaluated patients with metabolic syndrome. The remainder included patients with related conditions, such as overweight/obesity, type 2 diabetes, or nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The mainly small or preliminary clinical studies that did evaluate patients with metabolic syndrome all show that taking resveratrol 100-1000 mg daily for 12-16 weeks does not improve blood pressure, glucose control, or plasma lipids (91331,95828,102513,105181). However, one preliminary clinical trial shows that taking resveratrol 500 mg three times daily for 3 months reduces body weight by about 4 kg, body mass index (BMI) by 1.3 kg/m2, fat mass by 2.4 kg, and waist circumference by 4 cm when compared to baseline (91331). The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a comparator group. Also, a moderate-sized clinical trial of adults with metabolic syndrome shows that taking resveratrol 300 mg and delta-tocotrienols 500 mg daily for 24 weeks improves body weight, waist circumference, blood pressure, fasting blood glucose, triglycerides, total and HDL cholesterol, and markers of inflammation and oxidative stress when compared with placebo (112144). It is unclear if these effects are due to resveratrol, delta-tocotrienols, or the combination.
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Oral resveratrol does not seem to be beneficial for most metabolic symptoms of NAFLD. It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for improving steatosis. Details: Although some individual studies disagree, meta-analyses reviewing 4-6 preliminary clinical studies show that taking resveratrol does not affect liver enzyme levels, insulin resistance, blood pressure, blood lipids, body mass index (BMI), or abdominal size when compared with placebo in patients with NAFLD (95826,99048,105184). Most trials have studied doses of 300-3000 mg daily for 2-3 months; one study used resveratrol 500 mg 3 times daily for 6 months (95826,98911,99048,105184). However, one meta-analysis shows that taking resveratrol might have a small effect on levels of the inflammatory mediators C-reactive protein and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha (105184). It is not clear if resveratrol might reduce steatosis in patients with NAFLD. One preliminary clinical study shows that taking resveratrol 3000 mg daily in two divided doses for 8 weeks does not improve steatosis when compared to baseline in males with NAFLD (91327). However, another preliminary clinical study in adults with NAFLD shows that taking resveratrol 500 mg daily for 3 months, while following an energy-balanced diet and exercising, improves steatosis, but not fibrosis, insulin resistance, lipid levels, or body composition, when compared with lifestyle modifications alone (91328). The difference in these findings might be due to small study sizes, the duration of therapy, or the gender of the included patients.

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Acne. It is unclear if topical resveratrol is beneficial for acne. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that applying a gel containing trans-resveratrol 1 mcg per gram to facial skin for 60 days reduces the severity of acne by about 54%, compared to only 6% for control gel (71064).
• Age-related cognitive decline. It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for age-related cognitive decline. Details: One small clinical study shows that taking resveratrol 75 mg twice daily for 14 weeks modestly improves cognitive performance and memory after menopause, but not executive function or learning, when compared with placebo (95827). Another small clinical study in healthy, older adults shows that taking resveratrol 200 mg daily for 26 weeks improves memory retention, but not delayed recall or word recognition, when compared with placebo. In this study, resveratrol capsules were formulated to also contain 320 mg of quercetin to enhance the absorption of resveratrol (102511). It is unclear if resveratrol alone would result in similar effects. Despite these positive results, conflicting research exists. A small clinical study in sedentary, overweight, elderly adults shows that taking resveratrol 300 mg daily for 90 days does not improve measures of cognitive function such as psychomotor speed, attention, executive function, learning, or memory when compared with placebo. Taking a higher dose of 1000 mg daily for 90 days modestly improves psychomotor speed, but no other cognitive measures, in these patients (98907). Another small clinical study in healthy elderly adults shows that taking resveratrol 200 mg daily for 26 weeks does not improve verbal memory when compared with placebo (98909).
• Aging skin. Although there has been interest in using oral resveratrol for aging skin, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of resveratrol for this purpose.
• Alzheimer disease. It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for improving symptoms of Alzheimer disease. Details: A meta-analysis of small clinical studies in patients with Alzheimer disease shows that taking resveratrol or trans-resveratrol up to 500 mg daily for 12 to 52 weeks improves the ability to perform activities of daily living but does not change cognitive function when compared with placebo (114517).
• Beta-thalassemia. It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for beta-thalassemia. Details: A small clinical study in patients with beta-thalassemia intermedia shows that taking micronized trans-resveratrol (Xian Tianxingjian Natural Bio-Products CO., LTD) 2000 mg with piperine (Bioprex Co.) 40 mg, with or without hydroxyurea 8-15 mg/kg, daily for 6 months does not improve hemoglobin levels or affect the need for blood transfusion when compared with taking placebo with or without hydroxyurea (98908).
• Cancer. It is unclear if dietary resveratrol is beneficial for cancer prevention. Details: Population research has found that a higher dietary intake of resveratrol is not associated with a reduced risk of cancer when compared to lower dietary intake (91334).
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Oral resveratrol has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking a combination of resveratrol 10 mg, vitamin C 180 mg, zinc 15 mg, and flavonoids 160 mg daily for 20 days followed by 10 days without supplementation, repeated for three cycles, modestly reduces symptoms of cough and sputum production in patients with mild-to-moderate COPD when compared with control (71130). It is not clear if these effects are due to resveratrol, the other ingredients, or the combination.
• Cognitive function. Oral resveratrol has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in healthy young adults shows that taking a specific supplement (Transmax by BiotiviaTM) containing trans-resveratrol 500 mg and piperine 10 mg daily for 28 days does not improve most measures of cognitive performance when compared with placebo (95834).
• Cognitive impairment. Oral resveratrol has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in a small number of patients with mild cognitive impairment shows that taking resveratrol 200 mg and quercetin 350 mg daily for 26 weeks does not improve learning and memory performance when compared with placebo (102512). However, given the small sample size, it is possible this study was inadequately powered to detect significant changes in these cognitive measures.
• Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for COVID-19. Details: A small clinical trial in outpatients with COVID-19 shows that taking resveratrol (Vita-Age) 1 gram four times daily, for 7-15 days based on symptom duration, does not reduce the rate of hospitalization, emergency room visits, or pneumonia when compared with placebo. All patients also received a single dose of Vitamin D3 (109164). This study may have been inadequately powered to detect differences between groups.
• Diabetes. Some research shows that oral resveratrol is beneficial for improving glycemic indices in patients with type 2 diabetes. However, more research is needed to determine the most effective dose or the patient population most likely to benefit. Details: Although results from individual clinical studies have been mixed (91329,95825,95832,100695,109165,109167,109170), meta-analyses of clinical research show that resveratrol modestly reduces blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels in patients with diabetes. Studies lasted 4-24 weeks and many included patients treated with antidiabetes medications, including metformin. However, these meta-analyses have yielded differing findings regarding effective doses (91329,109165,109167,109170). One meta-analysis of clinical research in individuals aged 45 years and older shows that doses of 250-1000 mg daily modestly reduce levels of fasting blood glucose, insulin, and HbA1c, as well as insulin resistance, when compared with placebo. Doses of up to 250 mg daily are generally ineffective, and only one study used doses greater than 1000 mg daily. Although sub-analyses suggest that these benefits may be limited to individuals aged 45-59 years, the number of studies in older individuals is small and findings are unclear (109165). A second meta-analysis in adults with type 2 diabetes suggests that resveratrol doses of at least 500 mg daily were necessary for reducing levels of fasting blood glucose and insulin, as well as insulin resistance (109167). A third meta-analysis, which also included Chinese language publications, shows that doses of resveratrol of at least 1000 mg daily are needed for improved glycemic control (109170). Some studies have used a specific resveratrol product (Biotivia Bioceuticals, International SrL) (95825). Although the reasons for discrepancies between individual clinical trials are not clear, it is possible that conflicting results are related to baseline blood glucose control. Resveratrol has shown benefit in patients with diabetes that is not well-controlled at baseline (HbA1c of 8% or higher) (91329), while results are mixed in patients with diabetes that is at least moderately well-controlled prior to supplementation (HbA1c of 7% or lower) (95825,100695). It is also possible that the differences may relate to the technique used to measure outcomes. For instance, resveratrol appears to improve insulin resistance when measured by the Stumvoll insulin sensitivity index, but not by the gold-standard hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp technique (95832). Resveratrol has also been evaluated for improving blood pressure, blood lipid, and liver transaminase levels in patients with type 2 diabetes. Meta-analyses of clinical trials show that resveratrol has a small, but likely clinically insignificant, effect on systolic blood pressure when compared with placebo. Two meta-analyses show similar findings for diastolic blood pressure; however, some research suggests that any benefits are limited to doses of at least 500 mg daily (102513,109167,109170). Most meta-analyses of clinical research show that resveratrol does not improve blood lipid levels (105181,109167,109170) or liver transaminase levels (105181) when compared with placebo. Other clinical research in patients with overweight and type 2 diabetes shows that taking resveratrol 1000 mg daily for 8 weeks does not affect hepatic steatosis or cardiovascular risk indices when compared with placebo (109169).
• Diabetic nephropathy. It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for diabetic nephropathy. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with diabetic nephropathy shows that taking resveratrol 500 mg plus losartan 12.5 mg daily for 90 days can reduce urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratios, but not serum creatinine levels or glomerular filtration rates, when compared with taking placebo and losartan. When compared to baseline, the urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio decreased by 46 mg/gram with resveratrol and increased by 25 mg/gram with placebo (100695).
• Hypertension. It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for lowering blood pressure. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that resveratrol is unlikely to be beneficial for improving systolic or diastolic blood pressure when compared with placebo in patients with hypertension. In the meta-analysis, studied populations included people who are overweight or obese, as well as patients with hypertension, type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), stroke, and dyslipidemia (102513). More research is needed in patients with hypertension.
• Migraine headache. It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for treating migraine headache. Details: A small clinical crossover study in patients with hormonal migraine headaches shows that taking resveratrol (Veri-te Resveratrol, Evolva SA) 75 mg twice daily for 3 months does not affect headache frequency, severity, or disability when compared with placebo (109166). However, this study did not include a wash-out period between treatments, introducing the potential for carry-over effects.
• Mitochondrial myopathies. It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for increasing exercise tolerance in patients with mitochondrial myopathies. Details: A very small clinical trial in adults with mitochondrial myopathies shows that taking resveratrol (Veri-te resveratrol) 500 mg twice daily for 8 weeks does not improve exercise capacity when compared with placebo (109162). This study may have been inadequately powered to detect differences between groups.
• Osteoarthritis. It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for osteoarthritis. Details: A small clinical study in patients with mild or moderate knee osteoarthritis receiving physical therapy and meloxicam 15 mg daily shows that adding resveratrol 500 mg daily for 90 days improves pain, function, and stiffness when compared with adding placebo (98910).
• Osteopenia. It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for improving bone mineral density (BMD). Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking resveratrol at doses of up to 1500 mg daily for 1-12 months does not increase BMD or alter bone biomarkers when compared with placebo (109163). The studies in this meta-analysis included various populations, such as postmenopausal or overweight individuals, or patients with type 2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome. However, a clinical study in healthy, postmenopausal females shows that taking fermented soy 200 mg, containing resveratrol 25 mg and equol 10mg, orally daily for 12 months increases whole-body BMD when compared with placebo. Levels of markers of bone formation, including osteocalcin and bone-specific alkaline phosphatase, are increased, and the level of deoxypyridinoline, a marker of bone resorption, is decreased (112942).
• Periodontitis. It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for periodontitis. Details: A small clinical study in individuals with chronic moderate-to-severe periodontitis who recently received non-surgical treatment for periodontitis shows that taking resveratrol 480 mg daily for 4 weeks improves plaque index when compared with placebo, but resveratrol does not seem to improve other markers of periodontitis, including pocket depth, bleeding index, clinical attachment loss, or salivary markers of inflammation (112135). The study may have been inadequately powered and too short in duration to detect a difference between the groups.
• Peritoneal dialysis. It is unclear if oral resveratrol can improve outcomes with peritoneal dialysis. Details: One clinical study shows that taking trans-resveratrol 150 mg or 450 mg daily for 12 weeks increases ultrafiltration rate and volume when compared with placebo in patients on peritoneal dialysis. The effect appears to be dose-dependent (95830).
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for PCOS. Details: Clinical research in patients with PCOS shows that taking resveratrol 1000 mg daily for 3 months results in a regular menstruation cycle length in 77% of individuals, compared with 52% of those taking placebo. The occurrence of hair loss was reduced by about 50%; however, there was no effect on hormone, metabolic, or lipid profiles. There was also a small increase in fat mass and decrease in fat-free mass, although the clinical relevance of these changes is unclear (109131). A small clinical trial in adults with PCOS shows that taking micronized trans-resveratrol (RevGenetics) 1500 mg daily for 3 months decreases levels of testosterone, but does not improve weight, lipid levels, insulin sensitivity, acne, or hirsutism, when compared with placebo (95823). A meta-analysis of 4 controlled trials of resveratrol, taken orally in doses of 800-1500 mg daily for 40 days to 3 months, shows reductions in levels of testosterone, luteinizing hormone, and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate when compared with placebo, but no effect on follicle stimulating hormone, prolactin, thyroid stimulating hormone, C-reactive protein, insulin, sex hormone binding globulin, lipids, acne, or pregnancy rates (112943).
• Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for RA. Details: A small clinical study shows that adding resveratrol 1 gram orally once daily as adjunct therapy to antirheumatic drugs for 2 months reduces the number of tender and swollen joints, as well as biomarkers of inflammation. It is not known whether resveratrol reduces joint damage when assessed using conventional radiography. Also, the most effective combination of resveratrol and antirheumatic drug is not known, since the patients in this study were taking different antirheumatic drugs at variable doses (95706).
• Sciatica. Oral resveratrol has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research in patients with sciatica secondary to a herniated disk shows that taking a combination of resveratrol 50 mg with alpha-lipoic acid, acetyl-L-carnitine, and cholecalciferol orally once daily for 30 days, concurrently with a physiotherapy protocol, reduces pain and disability, and improves quality of life when compared with the physiotherapy protocol alone (112933). It is unclear if the effects are due to resveratrol, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Ulcerative colitis. It is unclear if oral resveratrol is beneficial for ulcerative colitis. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking trans-resveratrol (Sumabe Company) 500 mg daily for 6 weeks reduces subjective measures of disease activity and improves quality of life measures when compared with placebo in patients with mild to moderate active ulcerative colitis (95831). However, a small clinical trial in patients with mild to moderate active ulcerative colitis shows that taking resveratrol (VeNatura Resveratrol Supplement) 250 mg twice daily for 8 weeks, while following the Mediterranean diet, is not more effective for improving ulcerative colitis symptom severity than following the Mediterranean diet without supplemental resveratrol (113339). More evidence is needed to rate resveratrol for these uses.

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LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in doses of up to 6 grams daily (698,10631). However, some patients have used up to 20 grams daily with apparent safety (698). Betaine anhydrous is available as an FDA-approved prescription product (Cystadane) (698), and also as a supplement. The European Food Safety Authority states that betaine anhydrous is safe to use in doses up to 6 mg/kg daily, in addition to usual dietary intake (105548). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of topical betaine anhydrous.

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately in doses up to 150 mg/kg daily (698). However, some patients have used up to 20 grams daily with apparent safety (698). Prescription betaine anhydrous (Cystadane) is approved by the US FDA for use in infants and children (698).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

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POSSIBLY SAFE ...when nicotinamide riboside chloride is used orally and appropriately. The European Food Safety Authority has set a tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 300 mg daily for nicotinamide riboside chloride (104937,107706). In clinical research, higher doses have been used for up to 12 weeks (110504,110506). A specific nicotinamide riboside branded ingredient (Niagen, ChromaDex) 1000 mg has been used twice daily for 12 weeks with apparent safety (94744,94745,94746,102035).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: POSSIBLY SAFE
when nicotinamide riboside chloride is used orally and appropriately. The European Food Safety Authority has determined that taking nicotinamide riboside chloride in doses of up to 230 mg daily is safe when pregnant or breastfeeding (104937,107706).

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POSSIBLY SAFE ...when the fruit is used orally and appropriately. A specific brand of pagoda tree fruit extract (Rexflavone, Rexgene Biotech Co. Ltd.) has been used safely in doses of up to 350 mg daily for up to 12 weeks (99966).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when the seeds are used orally (18). Regular use of seed meal can cause facial edema or even death (18).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when the seed is used orally (18); avoid using. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of the fruit when used orally during pregnancy or lactation.

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POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Large doses up to 30 grams per day for 6 weeks (5223) and smaller doses of up to 6 grams daily for up to 24 months have been well tolerated (68839,68843,105728). ...when used subcutaneously and appropriately, short-term. Some research suggests that subcutaneous injections of 0.2 mL to 5 mL of a 5% phosphatidylcholine solution do not cause significant serious adverse effects when doses are administered up to five times and spaced apart by 2-4 weeks (15621,15623,15624,15625). ...when used topically as an emulsion also containing niacinamide for up to 12 weeks (93388).

PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally from 18 weeks of gestation at doses of up to 5 grams daily (93386)

LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

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LIKELY SAFE ...when used in amounts found in foods (2030).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when taken orally in doses of up to 1500 mg daily for up to 3 months (71066,71097,91328,91331,95825,95833,98910,100695,105183,109163,109167). Higher doses of 2000-3000 mg daily have been well tolerated when taken for 2-6 months, but are more likely to cause gastrointestinal side effects (91327,98908). ...when used topically for up to 30 days (71064). ...when used as an intranasal spray for up to 4 weeks (97339).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used in amounts found in foods.

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used as an intranasal spray for up to 2 months in children 4 years of age and older (91332). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of resveratrol when used by mouth in larger amounts as medicine.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used in amounts found in foods (2030). Resveratrol is found in grape skins, grape juice, wine, and other food sources. However, wine should not be used as a source of resveratrol during pregnancy and lactation.

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ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, nicotinamide riboside may have additive effects with antihypertensive drugs, potentially increasing the risk for hypotension.  Details One small clinical study suggests that nicotinamide riboside can modestly reduce blood pressure in hypertensive patients (94744). However, other clinical research did not find a reduction in blood pressure when compared with control (104935).

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CAFFEINE Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, pagoda tree might reduce the clearance of caffeine.  Details Pagoda tree contains genistein. Taking genistein 1 gram daily for 14 days seems to inhibit caffeine clearance and metabolism in healthy females (23582). This effect has been attributed to inhibition of the cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) enzyme, which is involved in caffeine metabolism. It is unclear if this effect occurs with the lower amounts of genistein found in pagoda tree.

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ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Resveratrol may have antiplatelet effects and may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.  Details Resveratrol seems to have antiplatelet effects (2949,2950,2951,2952,2961,70813,70828,70831,70892,70968,71106).

CYTOCHROME P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, resveratrol might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP1A1.  Details In vitro research shows that resveratrol can inhibit CYP1A1 enzymes (70811,70862). However, this interaction has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, resveratrol might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP1A2.  Details In vitro research shows that resveratrol can inhibit CYP1A2 enzymes (21733). However, this interaction has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 1B1 (CYP1B1) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, resveratrol might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP1B1.  Details In vitro research shows that resveratrol can inhibit CYP1B1 enzymes (70834). However, this interaction has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 2C19 (CYP2C19) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, resveratrol might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP2C19.  Details In vitro research shows that resveratrol can inhibit CYP2C19 enzymes (70896). However, this interaction has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Resveratrol might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP2E1.  Details In vitro research suggests that resveratrol inhibits CYP2E1 isoenzyme (7864,70896). Also, a pharmacokinetic study shows that taking resveratrol 500 mg daily for 10 days prior to taking a single dose of chlorzoxazone 250 mg increases the maximum concentration of chlorzoxazone by about 54%, the area under the curve of chlorzoxazone by about 72%, and the half-life of chlorzoxazone by about 35% (95824). Chlorzoxazone is used as a probe drug for CYP2E1.

CYTOCHROME P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, resveratrol might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP3A4.  Details In vitro research shows that resveratrol can inhibit the CYP3A4 enzyme (7864,70896). However, clinical research shows that taking resveratrol 3000 mg daily for 8 weeks does not necessitate dose adjustments to medications metabolized by CYP3A4 (91327).

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General ...Orally, betaine anhydrous is generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Body odor, diarrhea, elevated cholesterol levels, GI distress, nausea, vomiting.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Cerebral edema.

Cardiovascular ...Betaine anhydrous might have adverse effects on the plasma lipid profile. Some studies have reported a 3% to 4% increase in total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels with betaine anhydrous 6 grams daily (16452,16455,16456,34904). A meta-analysis of 6 studies in adults, some with obesity and/or prediabetes, shows that taking betaine anhydrous 4-6 grams daily for 6-24 weeks is associated with a mean increase in total cholesterol of 4 mg/dL, with no significant change in LDL cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, or triglyceride levels (105814). Another meta-analysis of 12 studies, some in healthy adults and others in adults with various disease states, shows that taking betaine anhydrous 1.5-20 grams daily for 2-52 weeks is associated with a mean increase in total cholesterol of 14 mg/dL, and a mean increase in LDL cholesterol of 10 mg/dL, with no change in triglyceride or HDL cholesterol levels (105813).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, betaine anhydrous can cause vomiting, nausea, GI distress, and diarrhea (698,10631,34888,34928,111374).

Neurologic/CNS ...When used orally to treat homocystinuria due to cystathionine beta-synthase deficiency, elevated plasma methionine concentrations can occur following use of betaine anhydrous, which might lead to cerebral edema (698,111374).

Other ...Orally, betaine anhydrous can cause body odor (698,10631).

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General ...Orally, nicotinamide riboside seems to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Bloating, muscle pain, nausea, pruritus, sweating, and transient changes in stools.

Dermatologic ...Orally, mild cases of flushing, skin rash, pruritus, and excessive sweating have been reported in clinical trials for some patients taking nicotinamide riboside (Niagen, ChromaDex) (94744,94745). However, flushing and skin rash were reported at the same rate in patients receiving placebo (94744).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, mild cases of nausea, bloating, and transient changes in stools have been reported in clinical trials for some patients taking nicotinamide riboside (Niagen, ChromaDex) (94744,94745,102035).
Other gastrointestinal adverse effects such as abdominal discomfort, diarrhea, and dyspepsia have been reported with oral use of a combination product (Basis, Elysium Health) containing nicotinamide riboside and pterostilbene (94747). It is unclear if these effects were due to nicotinamide riboside, pterostilbene, or the combination.

Hematologic ...Orally, increased bruising was reported in one clinical trial for one patient taking nicotinamide riboside (Niagen, ChromaDex) (94744).

Musculoskeletal ...Orally, leg cramps were reported in one clinical trial for one patient taking nicotinamide riboside (Niagen, ChromaDex) (94744). Some patients taking this specific nicotinamide riboside product in another clinical trial have reported mild muscle pain or soreness (102035).

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General ...Orally, pagoda tree flower and fruit seem to be well tolerated. No adverse effects have been reported; however, a thorough evaluation of safety outcomes has not been conducted. The pagoda tree seed is possibly unsafe when consumed long-term.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: With use of the seed, death and edema.

Other ...Orally, using pagoda tree seed long-term may cause edema and death (18).

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General ...Phosphatidylcholine is generally well tolerated when used orally, subcutaneously, or topically.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Altered taste, bloating, diarrhea, itching, nausea, sweating, vomiting.
Subcutaneously: Bruising, burning, edema, erythema, hematoma, itching, pain at the injection site.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Subcutaneously: Lipoma.

Dermatologic ...When taken orally, phosphatidylcholine may increase sweating (5229) and itching (63244). When given subcutaneously, phosphatidylcholine can cause pain, burning, itching, tenderness to touch, bruising, edema, and erythema at the injection site. The pain, itching and erythema usually resolve within 2 days of treatment; however localized tenderness can last longer (15623,15624,15626,15627,15628). Edema and bruising usually resolve within 10 days of treatment (15621,15623,15625). Some people can also develop nodules or hematoma at the injection site. This usually resolves within 30 days (15627).

Gastrointestinal ...Ingesting large amounts of phosphatidylcholine (30 grams per day) can cause gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea (5223). However, bloating, diarrhea, altered taste, nausea, and vomiting have been reported with smaller doses (63244,68843,93389,93390,105728). Although moderate subcutaneous doses do not usually cause systemic side effects, high doses exceeding 1.2 grams of phosphatidylcholine can cause nausea and abdominal pain in some people (15624).

Musculoskeletal ...Injecting phosphatidylcholine directly into a lipoma can result in a significant inflammatory response and undesirable fibrotic tissue changes (15622).

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General ...In foods, resveratrol is well tolerated. When used orally in higher doses, as well as topically or intranasally, resveratrol seems to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Diarrhea, gastrointestinal discomfort, and loose stools.

Dermatologic ...Orally, there is one case of a pruritic skin rash that occurred in a clinical trial. The rash resolved two weeks after stopping resveratrol (109163).
Topically, a case of allergic contact dermatitis has been reported after applying a facial cream (Resveratrol BE, Skinceuticals) containing aqueous resveratrol 1% in combination with Baikal skullcap root extract 0.5%. Patch testing identified a positive reaction to both ingredients (110024).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, mild gastrointestinal discomfort with increased diarrhea or loose stools has been reported, especially when resveratrol is taken in doses of 2. 5-5 grams daily (71042,71052,91327,95830,109163,109164,109167).

Hematologic ...In one clinical study, a patient developed severe febrile leukopenia and thrombocytopenia after taking oral resveratrol 500 mg three times daily for 10 days. Upon re-exposure to resveratrol, febrile leukopenia recurred (109163).

Musculoskeletal ...Orally, resveratrol has been associated with muscle cramps in patients on peritoneal dialysis. The causality of this adverse effect has not been established (95830).

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, resveratrol has been associated with headache, fatigue, and memory loss in patients on peritoneal dialysis. The causality of these adverse effects has not been established (95830).

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