Linum B6 [Discontinued] by SP Standard Process

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Bipolar disorder. Oral flaxseed oil does not seem to reduce symptoms of bipolar disorder in children. Details: Clinical research in children ages 6-17 years with bipolar disorder shows that taking flaxseed oil, titrated to provide up to 6.5 grams of the flaxseed oil constituent alpha-linolenic acid, daily for 16 weeks does not improve symptoms of mania or depression when compared with placebo (66044).
• Hyperlipidemia. Oral flaxseed oil does not seem to reduce cholesterol levels. Details: Although some evidence from preliminary, low-quality clinical studies disagrees (21698,26466,76696), most clinical research shows that taking flaxseed oil does not reduce cholesterol or triglyceride levels in patients with or without hypercholesterolemia or hypertriglyceridemia (2317,16791,16794,21693,21694,21696,21697,22177,72228,101947)(101954,101956,111062). A meta-analysis of clinical studies evaluating various flaxseed formulations suggests that flaxseed oil consumption may reduce apolipoprotein A levels, but not apolipoprotein B levels, when compared with control groups (108046). A subgroup analysis from another meta-analysis suggests that flaxseed oil may modestly improve levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (108044). It should be noted that most research suggests that flaxseed, the source of flaxseed oil, can improve lipid levels in adults with hyperlipidemia. This difference may be due to lipid lowering components such as lignans, phytic acid, and polyphenols, that are found in flaxseed, but not flaxseed oil. See the Flaxseed monograph for more information.
• Obesity. Oral flaxseed oil does not seem to improve weight loss. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research in overweight adults shows that flaxseed oil consumption does not reduce body weight, body mass index, or waist circumference when compared with control (96427). This is in contrast to research suggesting that flaxseed, the source of flaxseed oil, can improve weight loss in obese and overweight adults. See the Flaxseed monograph for more information.
• Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Oral flaxseed oil does not seem to improve symptoms of RA. Details: A small clinical study in patients with RA shows that taking flaxseed oil daily for 3 months does not seem to improve symptoms of pain and stiffness, and has no effect on laboratory measures of RA, such as C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), when compared with control (5898).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Atherosclerosis. Small clinical trials show that taking flaxseed oil has modest benefit on metabolic risk factors in patients with plaque in the coronary artery. Details: Observational research in White adults has found that high dietary intake of linolenic acid, a flaxseed oil constituent, is associated with reduced calcified atherosclerotic plaque in the coronary arteries (12990). However, clinical research has not confirmed this finding. A small clinical trial in patients with coronary artery disease shows that taking flaxseed oil 5 grams in milk containing 1.5% fat reduces triglyceride levels by 14% when compared with the milk alone. However, there was no effect on systolic blood pressure, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, or low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (101954). Additionally, another small study in a similar patient population shows that taking flaxseed oil 2 grams daily for 12 weeks has no effect on lipid levels when compared with placebo (101956).
• Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Oral flaxseed oil has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical trial in children with ADHD shows that taking flaxseed oil, providing 200 mg of alpha-linolenic acid, in combination with vitamin C 25 mg, twice daily can improve measures of attention, impulsivity, restlessness, and self-control when compared to baseline (14443). This finding is limited by the lack of a control group. Furthermore, it is unclear if the benefit is due to flaxseed oil, vitamin C, or the combination.
• Breast cancer. It is unclear if oral flaxseed oil reduces the risk of breast cancer. Details: Population research has found that females with higher levels of the flaxseed oil constituent, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), in breast adipose tissue have a lower risk of breast cancer. Fatty acid composition of adipose tissue is thought to reflect past dietary intake, so researchers think high intake of ALA might have a cancer protective effect (7168,21689). Flaxseed oil is one source of ALA; it is unclear what effect, if any, flaxseed oil has on breast cancer risk.
• Burns. It is unclear if oral flaxseed oil improves wound healing and health in people with burns. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with mild to moderate burns shows that eating cookies containing flaxseed oil 30 grams and isolated soy protein (ISP) 50 grams daily for 3 weeks improves the rate of wound healing when compared with control cookies. It seems to take at least 3 weeks before this difference is observed. However, there is no significant difference in the rate of wound healing when compared with cookies containing ISP with corn oil (99401). It is possible that the study was underpowered to detect a difference between these two groups.
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is unclear if oral flaxseed oil reduces the risk of CVD. Details: Flaxseed oil is a source of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). A meta-analysis of observational studies has found that, overall, increasing dietary intake of ALA by 1.2 grams daily is associated with a 20% reduced risk of fatal coronary heart disease in people with existing heart disease (12978). Some research suggests that ALA has a greater impact on coronary heart disease when intake of fish oils is low (12989). It is unknown if flaxseed oil supplements have these same effects. Additionally, it is difficult to separate effects of dietary ALA in these studies from those of other dietary, lifestyle, or drug interventions (12917).
• Carpal tunnel syndrome. It is unclear if topical flaxseed oil reduces carpal tunnel pain. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome who wear a wrist splint at night shows that applying flaxseed oil 5 drops topically on the palmar wrist twice daily for 4 weeks improves subjective symptom scores by 30%, function scores by 17%, and sensory nerve conduction velocity of the median nerve by about 7% when compared to baseline. Compared to the changes observed for patients in the placebo group, these improvements were significant (25691). It is unclear if this benefit persists long-term or how topical flaxseed oil compares to other standard treatments for carpal tunnel syndrome.
• Chronic kidney disease (CKD). Although there is interest in using oral flaxseed oil for CKD, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of flaxseed for this condition.
• Cognitive function. It is unclear if oral flaxseed oil improves cognitive function in healthy adults. Details: Clinical research in healthy older Japanese adults with normal cognitive function shows that taking flaxseed oil 3.7 grams daily for 12 weeks modestly improves verbal fluency when compared with taking placebo. However, there was no effect on other measures of cognitive function, including attention, concentration, and memory (111060).
• Diabetes. Oral flaxseed oil may not improve glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. However, there may be some benefit in patients with gestational diabetes. Details: Most clinical research in patients with type 2 diabetes shows that taking flaxseed oil, providing about 1-16 grams of alpha-linolenic acid, daily for up to 6 months does not improve fasting blood glucose, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1C), or insulin resistance when compared with placebo (16792,66065,96428,96431,101956,111062). While taking flaxseed oil does not seem to be beneficial for type 2 diabetes, it might improve outcomes in gestational diabetes. A small clinical study in pregnant patients (24-28 weeks gestation) with gestational diabetes shows that taking flaxseed oil 1 gram twice daily for 6 weeks reduces fasting levels of glucose and insulin and improves insulin resistance when compared with placebo (101957). Another small clinical study in patients with gestational diabetes shows that taking flaxseed oil 1 gram, containing 400 mg of alpha-linolenic acid, along with vitamin E 400 IU daily for 6 weeks reduces blood glucose levels, insulin levels, and insulin resistance and improves beta-cell function when compared with placebo (96432). It is unclear if the findings from this latter study are due to flaxseed oil, vitamin E, or the combination.
• Diabetic foot ulcers. It is unclear if oral flaxseed oil improves the healing of diabetic foot ulcers. Details: One small clinical trial in adults with grade 3 diabetic foot ulcers shows that taking flaxseed oil 1 gram twice daily for 12 weeks in conjunction with intravenous antibiotics for the first 3 weeks reduces ulcer size when compared with placebo (96431).
• Dry eye. Flaxseed oil, both orally and as an eye drop, has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: One small clinical study in patients with dry eye shows that taking a specific combination product (TheraTears Nutrition, Advanced Vision Research) containing eicosapentaenoic acid 450 mg, docosahexaenoic acid 300 mg, and flaxseed oil 1000 mg daily for 90 days reduces subjective symptoms of dry eye and might increase tear production when compared with placebo. However, it did not improve meibomian gland secretions or tear evaporation rate when compared with placebo (17523). Eye drops with flaxseed oil have also been tried for dry eye. A clinical study shows that using a specific product (Refresh Optive MEGA-3 Preservative-Free Lubricant Eye Drops, Allergan plc) which contains flaxseed oil and trehalose in addition to other ingredients such as carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and castor oil twice daily for 90 days improves dry eye symptoms when compared to baseline, but not when compared with the same eye drops formulated without flaxseed oil and trehalose (101953).
• Dry skin. There is conflicting evidence regarding the use of flaxseed oil for dry skin. Details: Some clinical research suggests that taking flaxseed oil 2.2 grams orally in combination with alpha-tocopherol 10 mg daily for 12 weeks does not improve skin hydration when compared with placebo or borage oil in females with dry skin, although the combination seems to improve the sensitivity of dry skin (21908). Other clinical research suggests that taking flaxseed oil 2.2 grams daily for 12 weeks improves skin hydration and roughness when compared with safflower oil (21909).
• Endometrial hyperplasia. It is unclear if oral flaxseed oil reduces endometrial hyperplasia. Details: A small clinical trial in adults with endometrial hyperplasia shows that taking flaxseed oil 1 gram twice daily for 12 weeks does not induce endometrial regression or reduce cholesterol levels when compared with placebo. However, there appears to be a small benefit on fasting plasma glucose and insulin levels (101955).
• Hypertension. Small studies suggest that flaxseed oil may modestly lower blood pressure in some patients. Details: Epidemiological research has found that high dietary intake of linolenic acid, a flaxseed oil constituent, is associated with a reduced risk of developing hypertension (12991). Meta-analyses of small clinical studies in patients with and without hypertension show that receiving flaxseed oil 1.2-30 grams daily for 4-24 weeks reduces systolic and diastolic blood pressure by 0.5 mmHg to 4 mmHg, when compared with control (96426,111063). One meta-analysis limited to small clinical trials in patients with metabolic syndrome, hypercholesterolemia, or hypertension, shows that taking flaxseed oil 25 mL or 2.2 to 9.2 grams daily for 7-12 weeks reduces systolic blood pressure by about 3.9 mmHg; however, there is no effect on diastolic blood pressure (111067). The small size and heterogeneity of the studies included in these meta-analysis limit the validity of these findings. Also, the effect of taking flaxseed oil in patients specifically with hypertension is unclear from this available research. Flaxseed oil has also been evaluated in combination with other oils and dietary interventions, with mixed evidence of benefit. Flaxseed oil 19 grams, providing 10.5 grams of alpha-linolenic acid, seems to reduce blood pressure when combined with walnuts and walnut oil daily for 6 weeks (21905). However, consuming 60 grams of a combination of flaxseed and safflower oils in a 6:4 ratio daily for 4 weeks does not seem to affect blood pressure when compared with baseline (26466).
• Mastalgia. It is unclear if oral flaxseed oil is beneficial in patients with mastalgia. Details: A clinical study in adults with fibrocystic breasts and mastalgia shows that taking flaxseed oil 1000 mg containing 350 mg alpha-linolenic acid twice daily for 2 months reduces pain when compared with baseline, but is no different than taking vitamin E 200 IU daily (105477).
• Metabolic syndrome. It is unclear if oral flaxseed oil is beneficial in patients with metabolic syndrome. Details: A small clinical study in patients with metabolic syndrome shows that taking flaxseed oil 20 mL daily for 7 weeks does not improve coagulation scores based on prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, and the international normalized ratio (INR) when compared with sunflower oil (101951).
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It is unclear if oral flaxseed oil is beneficial in patients with NAFLD. Details: Clinical research in overweight or obese patients with NAFLD shows that taking flaxseed oil 20 grams daily for 12 weeks as part of a hypocaloric diet improves the grade of fatty liver by 41%, compared with 18% in patients taking sunflower oil. There was also a small effect on body mass index, although there was no effect on liver enzymes, glycemic control, or body composition (101952).
• Parkinson disease. Oral flaxseed oil has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: One small clinical study in patients with Parkinson disease shows that taking flaxseed oil 1 gram daily plus vitamin E 400 IU daily for 12 weeks improves the Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) total score by 3.3 points, compared to a 4.4-point worsening in the placebo group (96430). However, it is unclear if this change is clinically meaningful. The minimal clinically important improvement in UPDRS total score is 4.3 points, while a moderate improvement ranges from 9 to 17 points (95686). Also, it is not clear if these findings are due to flaxseed oil, vitamin E, or the combination.
• Physical performance. It is unclear if oral flaxseed oil improves physical performance in older adults. Details: A small clinical study in elderly adults without previous exercise training suggests that flaxseed oil containing alpha-linolenic acid does not improve muscle strength when compared with placebo (65937).
• Pneumonia. It is unclear if oral flaxseed oil helps to prevent pneumonia. Details: Epidemiological research has found that increasing dietary alpha-linolenic acid, which occurs in flaxseed oil, is associated with a reduced risk of community-acquired pneumonia (13760). However, this research did not specifically assess the effect of flaxseed oil intake on pneumonia.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Small clinical studies suggest that oral flaxseed oil might help to improve some markers of PCOS. Details: A small clinical study in patients with PCOS shows that taking flaxseed oil, providing 545 mg of alpha-linolenic acid, for 6 weeks lowers triglycerides but does not affect weight, hormone levels, glycemic control, or cholesterol levels when compared to baseline (21906). This finding is limited by the lack of a control group. Another small clinical study in patients with PCOS shows that taking flaxseed oil, providing 1 gram of omega-3 fatty acids, twice daily in addition to metformin for 12 weeks decreases triglyceride and insulin levels, but does not affect fasting blood glucose, testosterone levels, free androgen index, or total cholesterol when compared with placebo (99402).
• Prostate cancer. Oral flaxseed oil does not seem to be linked to prostate cancer risk. Details: Although some epidemiologic research has found that high dietary intake of alpha-linolenic acid, a constituent of flaxseed oil, is associated with an increased risk for prostate cancer (1334,1337,2558,7823,7147,12978,12961), other research has found no association (12961,15736). Furthermore, it appears that alpha-linolenic acid from plant sources, such as flaxseed or flaxseed oil, does not increase prostate cancer risk (12909).
• Ulcerative colitis. It is unclear if oral flaxseed oil is beneficial in patients with ulcerative colitis. Details: A small open-label clinical study in patients with ulcerative colitis shows that taking flaxseed oil 10 grams daily for 12 weeks seems to modestly reduce inflammatory markers and disease severity and improve quality of life when compared with control (101941). More evidence is needed to rate flaxseed oil for these uses.

(Read more about FLAXSEED OIL)

EFFECTIVE

• Pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy. Intravenous vitamin B6 is effective for controlling pyridoxine-dependent seizures. Details: Pyridoxine-dependent seizures are a rare type of refractory seizures in neonates that do not respond to anticonvulsant drugs. These seizures are typically controlled within minutes of intravenous administration of pyridoxine, a form of vitamin B6. Pyridoxine-dependent seizures can be due to genetic (autosomal recessive) pyridoxine dependency, or more commonly, a result of the use of high-dose pyridoxine during pregnancy (8197,8198).
• Sideroblastic anemia. Oral vitamin B6 is effective for treating hereditary sideroblastic anemia. Details: Taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) orally is effective for treating hereditary sideroblastic anemia (15,9518). Taking the active form of vitamin B6 (pyridoxal-5'-phosphate) also seems to be effective in cases in which the patient does not respond to pyridoxine (93049).
• Vitamin B6 deficiency. Oral vitamin B6 is effective for preventing and treating vitamin B6 deficiency. Details: Taking oral vitamin B6 can prevent and treat vitamin B6 deficiency (15).

LIKELY EFFECTIVE

• Hyperhomocysteinemia. Taking vitamin B6 orally, alone or in combination with folic acid, is effective for reducing hyperhomocysteinemia. Details: Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) seems to lower homocysteine concentrations when folic acid and vitamin B12 are at physiologic levels or when given with folic acid and vitamin B12 supplements (9451,83042,107136). A combination of vitamin B6 100 mg and folic acid 0.5 mg daily seems to lower homocysteine levels by about 35% and is recommended for people with postprandial hyperhomocysteinemia (1489,9406). Other research shows that taking pyridoxine 50-200 mg daily reduces postprandial homocysteine levels by 32% to 35% (9406,10350). Pyridoxine also seems to reduce homocysteine levels in patients with kidney failure, kidney transplant patients (1489,6884,9414,9415), or patients who receive general anesthesia with nitrous oxide (9481). However, some research in healthy adults suggests that adding pyridoxine to folic acid might not provide any additional benefit over folic acid alone (9400,9405,9409,50145). Hyperhomocysteinemia is considered by some to be an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis, recurrent thromboembolism, deep vein thrombosis, myocardial infarction, and ischemic stroke (1899,3323,9402,9405,9408,9409). However, elevated homocysteine levels may be a marker, as opposed to a cause, of vascular disease (11387,11388). A 5 µmol/L increase in plasma homocysteine increases the risk of cerebrovascular disease by 50% and the odds of coronary heart disease by 60% and 80% in males and females, respectively (9407,9411). However, it is not clear if reducing homocysteine levels results in reduced cardiovascular morbidity and mortality (1489,6883,6884,9308,9400,9405,9409). Folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 supplementation can reduce total homocysteine from 13.4 to 11 µmol/L. However, this reduction does not seem to help with secondary prevention of death or myocardial infarction, and some research even suggests an increase in cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk (11387,13482,50423,83050,97619). There is also debate about whether supplementation with homocysteine-lowering B vitamins can reduce the risk of stroke. A number of large clinical studies and meta-analyses show that supplementation with folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12, alone or in combination, does not reduce the risk of stroke in patients with CVD or impaired renal function (11387,13482,50423,83050,96150). However, a more recent meta-analysis shows that B vitamin supplementation modestly reduces the relative risk of stroke by 10% when compared with placebo in patients at risk for or with a history of CVD (97619). Also, a meta-analysis in patients with a history of stroke shows that B vitamin supplementation modestly reduces the relative risk of stroke recurrence by 13% and the risk of vascular death by 11% when compared with placebo (107136).

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinemia. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial for patients with antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinemia. Details: Clinical research in male patients with hyperprolactinemia who are on a consistent antipsychotic dose shows that taking vitamin B6 300 mg twice daily for 16 weeks reduces serum prolactin levels by 68%, compared with 37% in patients taking aripiprazole 5 mg twice daily. Also, 67% of patients taking vitamin B6 had prolactin levels less than 40 mcg/mL versus 2% of those taking aripiprazole (107128).
• Kidney stones (nephrolithiasis). Oral vitamin B6 seems to decrease urinary oxalate levels and decrease the risk of kidney stone formation in some patients. Details: There is some evidence that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) orally, alone or in combination with magnesium, can decrease urinary oxalate levels in people with type I primary hyperoxaluria, a hereditary disorder (1201,6437,6438,6439,6440,8548,8549,8550). Additionally, a small clinical study in this population suggests that intravenous pyridoxine hydrochloride can reduce urinary oxalate by 25.5% when compared to baseline (90796). In patients with idiopathic hyperoxaluria, taking a combination of pyridoxine 25mg and magnesium oxide 400 mg for 3 months decreases urinary oxalate by approximately 16%, with 68% of patients experiencing a reduction. However, supplementation is less effective than following a low-oxalate diet, which reduces urinary oxalate in 91% of patients by an average of 31% (107127). There is also preliminary evidence that higher pyridoxine intake in females with no history of kidney stones is associated with decreased risk of kidney stone formation (6441), but this association has not been found in males (6442).
• Pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting. Oral vitamin B6 may reduce nausea and vomiting in some pregnant patients and is sometimes used in combination with doxylamine. Details: While some conflicting evidence exists, most small clinical studies suggest that oral vitamin B6 is effective for improving nausea and vomiting associated with pregnancy when compared with baseline or placebo. However, vitamin B6 may not be as effective as ginger (110459). Two small clinical studies show that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 25 mg every 8 hours for 3-4 days decreases pregnancy-induced nausea severity and vomiting incidence when compared with placebo (6168,16306). A larger clinical trial shows that taking lower doses of vitamin B6, 10 mg every 8 hours over 5 days, improves pregnancy-induced nausea, but not vomiting, when compared with placebo (6167). A small clinical study in patients with mild to moderate nausea and vomiting shows that taking a higher dose of 40 mg twice daily for 4 days is more effective than placebo, but no better than ginger 500 mg twice daily (99404). The American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology (ACOG) considers vitamin B6 at a dose of 10-25 mg 3 to 4 times daily a first-line treatment for pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting due to its benign safety profile (111601). However, it is not effective for all patients, such as those with hyperemesis gravidarum, a severe form of pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting. Adding vitamin B6 20 mg three times daily for 2 weeks to intravenous rehydration, metoclopramide, and thiamine seems to be no more effective than placebo for reducing vomiting in hyperemesis gravidarum (99405). Vitamin B6 is also sometimes used in combination with doxylamine. In fact, a combination of vitamin B6 plus doxylamine (Diclegis or Bonjesta, Duchesnay Inc., and various generics) has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a prescription product111601). ACOG recommends vitamin B6 in combination with doxylamine as another first-line treatment option (111601). However, the clinical trial used to obtain FDA approval has some methodological problems, and the significance of the results has been questioned. The improvement in symptom scores seen with Diclegis was less than one point on a 13-point scale, which is unlikely to be clinically significant (97998). Also, some clinical research shows that taking pyridoxine 25 mg and doxylamine 12.5 mg is less effective than ondansetron 4 mg when taken every 8 hours for 5 days. Only 41% of the patients using pyridoxine and doxylamine had a clinically significant reduction in nausea, compared to 92% of patients using ondansetron (90797). The combination of vitamin B6 and doxylamine is also studied with acupuncture. A large clinical study in patients with moderate to severe pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting conducted in China shows that taking vitamin B6-doxylamine (Diclegis, Duchesnay, Inc) 20 to 40 mg each at bedtime for 14 days in combination with daily acupuncture modestly improves patient-reported nausea and vomiting scores when compared with either intervention alone (111820). However, it is unclear whether this improvement is clinically significant.
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Oral vitamin B6 seems to reduce PMS symptoms. Details: There is some evidence that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) orally can improve symptoms of PMS such as breast pain or tenderness (mastalgia) and depression in some patients. Pyridoxine in doses of at least 50 mg daily, plus magnesium oxide 200 mg daily, seems to relieve PMS-related anxiety and other symptoms (8555,39007,82962). Although some clinicians advocate doses of pyridoxine 200-500 mg daily for PMS, doses of 50-100 mg daily seem to work just as well. There is no apparent dose-response curve for PMS, so the lowest effective dose should be used. Higher doses might increase the risk of side effects (3093).

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Age-related cognitive decline. Oral vitamin B6 does not seem to slow age-related cognitive decline. Details: One clinical trial in elderly people with memory complaints shows that taking a combination of B vitamins, including folic acid 0.8 mg, vitamin B12 0.5 mg, and vitamin B6 (form not specified) 20 mg daily for 24 months reduces cerebral atrophy in the gray matter regions associated with Alzheimer disease by up to seven-fold when compared with placebo. However, this protection does not occur in patients with the lowest average blood levels of homocysteine (90374). Furthermore, other clinical research shows that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 3-75 mg daily in combination with folic acid and vitamin B12 does not improve cognitive function in elderly adults (14392,50225,50510).
• Alzheimer disease. Oral vitamin B6 does not seem to improve cognitive function in patients with Alzheimer disease when used in combination with other B vitamins. Also, oral vitamin B6 does not seem to reduce the risk of developing this condition. Details: Clinical research in patients with probable Alzheimer disease taking routine medications shows that taking vitamin B6 25 mg with folic acid 5 mg and vitamin B12 1 mg daily for 18 months does not have a beneficial effect on cognitive function or the severity of disease when compared with placebo. In this study, all patients were consuming a folate-fortified diet (50319). Also, population research in elderly adults has found that a high intake of vitamin B6 from dietary or supplemental sources is not associated with a decreased risk of Alzheimer disease when compared to lower vitamin B6 intake (13165,15270).
• Carpal tunnel syndrome. Oral vitamin B6 does not seem to reduce symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome. Details: Most research shows that people with carpal tunnel syndrome are not generally deficient in vitamin B6 and do not benefit from taking vitamin B6 supplements (8203,8937,9448,9450,9478,9482). Although early studies by a single group of researchers, as well as anecdotal reports, suggest that taking vitamin B6 may relieve carpal tunnel symptoms, more reliable research has not supported these findings (8202,9445,9447,9449,9483,15955,83086).
• Cataracts. Oral vitamin B6 does not seem to slow cataract development. Details: Clinical research in females with existing cardiovascular disease (CVD) or at increased risk of CVD shows that taking a combination of folic acid 2.5 mg, vitamin B6 (form not specified) 50 mg, and vitamin B12 1 mg daily for an average of 7.3 years does not reduce the risk of cataracts when compared with placebo. Furthermore, the risk of cataract extraction was increased by 28% (96149).
• Chemotherapy-induced acral erythema. While some conflicting evidence exists, most research suggests that oral or topical vitamin B6 does not seem to prevent or reduce the severity of acral erythema induced by chemotherapy. Details: A meta-analysis of 10 clinical trials and 4 observational studies shows that taking vitamin B6 60-500 mg daily for up to 8 chemotherapy cycles does not prevent chemotherapy-induced acral erythema or reduce the incidence of severe cases when compared with control. Most studies used capecitabine chemotherapy alone or in combination, and one study used pegylated liposomal doxorubicin; however, no subgroup analysis was conducted to differentiate chemotherapy regimens. Results did not seem to vary based on study location, study design, or vitamin B6 dose (104930). However, a more recent preliminary clinical study in patients receiving doxorubicin for multiple myeloma shows that taking vitamin B6 100 mg on the first day of chemotherapy then twice daily for 7 days with each cycle reduces the risk of developing acral erythema by 72%, but does not improve the severity of acral erythema, when compared with no vitamin B6 supplementation (110458). Also, one small, low-quality clinical study suggests that taking vitamin B6 400 mg daily reduces the risk of moderate or severe chemotherapy-induced acral erythema when compared with vitamin B6 200 mg daily; however, the higher dose also seems to be associated with worsened tumor response and increased treatment failure (97620). Topical vitamin B6 has also failed to show benefit. A small clinical study in patients with acral erythema from capecitabine or pegylated liposomal doxorubicin shows that applying vitamin B6 1% cream to affected areas three times daily for 6 weeks does not improve symptoms when compared with placebo (104929).
• Colorectal adenoma. Oral vitamin B6 does not seem to reduce the risk of developing colorectal adenomas. Details: Clinical research shows that taking a combination of B vitamins, including folic acid 2.5 mg, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 50 mg, and vitamin B12 1 mg, daily for up to 9.2 years does not reduce the risk of colorectal adenoma in females at high risk of cardiovascular disease when compared with placebo (90389).
• Eclampsia. Oral or intramuscular vitamin B6 does not seem to reduce the risk of eclampsia. Details: Meta-analyses of limited clinical research in pregnant patients show that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), either as 25 mg daily or a single dose of 100 mg orally or intramuscularly, does not reduce the risk of eclampsia when compared with control (83046,96166).
• Osteoporosis. Oral vitamin B6 does not seem to reduce the risk of osteoporotic fractures. Details: Clinical research in patients with cerebrovascular disease shows that taking a combination of B vitamins, including folic acid 2 mg, vitamin B6 (form not specified) 25 mg, and vitamin B12 500 mcg daily for up to 10.5 years does not prevent osteoporotic fractures when compared with placebo (90377). Furthermore, a secondary analysis of two large studies in patients with cardiovascular disease has found that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 40 mg daily in addition to folic acid and vitamin B12 for 1-3 years is associated with a 42% increased risk of hip fracture over an 11-year period when compared with only folic acid and vitamin B12 (96163). This finding is limited because these studies were not designed to assess the effects of vitamin B6 on fracture risk and the analyses were not adjusted for baseline bone health or fall risk.
• Pre-eclampsia. Oral or intramuscular vitamin B6 does not seem to reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia. Details: Meta-analyses of limited clinical research in pregnant patients show that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), either as 25 mg daily or a single dose of 100 mg orally or intramuscularly, does not reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia when compared with placebo (83046,96166).
• Preterm labor. Oral or intramuscular vitamin B6 does not seem to reduce the risk of preterm labor. Details: Meta-analyses of limited clinical research in pregnant patients shows that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), either as 25 mg daily or a single dose of 100 mg orally or intramuscularly, does not reduce the risk of preterm labor when compared with placebo (83046,96166).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Acne. Oral vitamin B6 has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults and children with inflammatory acne shows that taking 1-4 tablets of a specific product (NicAzel, Elorac Inc.) containing vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), nicotinamide, azelaic acid, zinc, copper, and folic acid for 8 weeks reduces inflammatory lesions and improves appearance in 88% and 81% of patients, respectively, when compared to baseline (90800). The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Oral vitamin B6 has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A large-scale clinical study shows that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 50 mg, vitamin B12 1000 mcg, and folic acid 2.5 mg daily reduces the risk for AMD in females over 40 years of age with a history of cardiovascular disease (CVD) or with risk factors for CVD. Those who took this combination for an average of 7.3 years had a 34% reduced risk of developing AMD and a 41% reduced risk of visually significant AMD when compared with placebo (14620). It is unclear if this effect is due to vitamin B6, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Angioplasty. Oral vitamin B6 has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Some evidence suggests that vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 10 mg, folic acid 1 mg, and vitamin B12 400 mcg daily can decrease the rate of restenosis in patients treated with balloon angioplasty (8009,9412). However, this combination does not seem to be as effective for reducing restenosis in patients after coronary stenting (8009). An intravenous loading dose of folic acid, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), and vitamin B12 followed by oral administration of folic acid 1.2 mcg, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 48 mg, and vitamin B12 60 mcg daily after bare metal coronary stenting also does not seem to reduce restenosis and might actually increase restenosis (12150,12151). Due to the lack of evidence of benefit and potential for harm, this combination of vitamins should not be recommended for patients receiving coronary stents (12151). It is unclear if any effects are due to vitamin B6, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Antipsychotic-induced metabolic side effects. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6, as an adjunct to progesterone, is beneficial in patients with antipsychotic-induced amenorrhea. Details: A small clinical study in females with antipsychotic-induced amenorrhea shows that taking vitamin B6 80 mg three times daily for 1 month plus intramuscular progesterone daily for 5 days increases levels of estradiol and follicle stimulating hormone, reduces prolactin levels, and increases the rate of clinical efficacy, defined as the normalization of menstruation and improvement in endocrine indicators, by 14% when compared with progesterone alone (110457).
• Anxiety. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial in patients with anxiety. Details: Clinical research in college students shows that taking vitamin B6 100 mg daily for one month does not reduce anxiety scores when compared with placebo (110453). However, because a diagnosis of anxiety was not a requirement for study participation, it is unclear if these findings can be generalized to patients diagnosed with anxiety.
• Asthma. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial in patients with asthma. Details: Preliminary clinical studies show that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 200-300 mg daily may improve symptoms of asthma in some patients, but not others, when compared with placebo (7064,7065). Studies have yielded conflicting results, with some research suggesting that it may only be beneficial in children with severe asthma (7065). Additionally, some research suggests that theophylline may lower vitamin B6 levels, although it is unclear if vitamin B6 supplementation is beneficial (4522,7066,9503).
• Atherosclerosis. Oral vitamin B6 has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research in patients with intermediate risk for coronary heart disease shows that taking a specific supplement (Kyolic, Total Heart Health, Formula 108, Wakunga) containing vitamin B6 12.5 mg, aged garlic extract 250 mg, vitamin B12 100 mcg, folic acid 300 mcg, and L-arginine 100 mg daily for 12 months reduces coronary artery calcium progression when compared with placebo (88385). It is unclear if this effect is due to vitamin B6, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Atopic dermatitis (eczema). It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial in patients with eczema. Details: A small clinical study in children with eczema shows that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine hydrochloride) 50 mg daily for 4 weeks does not reduce symptoms such as redness and itchiness when compared with placebo (83090).
• Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial for ADHD. Details: A small crossover study in children with ADHD shows that taking vitamin B6 600 mg, niacinamide and ascorbic acid 3 grams, and calcium pantothenate 1.2 grams daily for 6 weeks does not improve behavior scores when compared with placebo (9957).
• Autism spectrum disorder. Although there is interest in using oral vitamin B6 for autism, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of vitamin B6 for this condition.
• Bipolar disorder. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial in patients with bipolar disorder. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with type 1 bipolar disorder who are taking lithium and experiencing an acute episode of mania shows that taking vitamin B6 80 mg daily for 8 weeks does not improve cognitive function or the severity of mania when compared with placebo. Cognitive function was reduced in patients taking vitamin B6; any effect on sleep was unclear (107132).
• Cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 reduces overall cancer risk. Details: Population research has found that higher dietary intake of vitamin B6 is associated with a 22% reduced risk of cancer, including esophageal, pancreatic, gastric, colorectal, and breast cancer. However, when dietary and supplemental vitamin B6 intake is considered, the inverse association between vitamin B6 and cancer risk is weaker and limited to fewer tumor sites. Furthermore, a meta-analysis of 9 clinical studies shows that taking vitamin B6 3-100 mg orally daily for 2-7.3 years, in combination with vitamin B12 and folate, does not reduce the risk of cancer in patients with cardiovascular disease or kidney failure (96164).
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). Oral vitamin B6, taken along with other B vitamins, does not seem to improve secondary prevention of death or myocardial infarction in patients with CVD. However, it might slightly lower the risk of stroke. Details: Overall evidence from clinical research and meta-analyses shows that taking vitamin B6 in combination with folic acid and/or vitamin B12 does not seem to help with secondary prevention of death or myocardial infarction in patients with or at risk for CVD (11387,13482,34540,50423,83050,90379,97619). In fact, some research suggests that long-term supplementation with vitamin B6, folic acid, and vitamin B12 for secondary prevention increases the risk of CVD by 20% despite lowering homocysteine levels by 30% (13482). However, some research shows that taking vitamin B6 in combination with other B vitamins modestly reduces the risk of stroke, although results are conflicting (11387,13482,50423,83050,96150,96165,97619,107136). Additionally, it is unclear which specific combination of B vitamins is optimal for reducing stroke risk and which patients are most likely to benefit. In 2001, prior to the publication of the highest quality research on this topic, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a qualified health claim stating that, as part of a well-balanced diet that is low in saturated fat and cholesterol, folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 may reduce the risk of vascular disease (102368).
• Cognitive function. Oral vitamin B6 has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A moderate-sized clinical study in healthy adults aged 40-65 years shows that taking a supplement containing vitamin B6, ginkgo leaf, bacopa, and other B vitamins twice daily for 12 weeks does not improve memory or attention when compared with placebo (111334).
• Colorectal cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 reduces the risk of colorectal cancer. Details: A meta-analysis of observational studies suggests that the highest dietary intake of vitamin B6 is associated with a 20% reduced risk of colorectal cancer when compared with the lowest dietary intake. However, this association was not shown in subgroup analyses of studies conducted in Australia, Europe, or North America (111600). The validity of this analysis is limited by the heterogeneity of the included studies.
• Dental caries. There is limited evidence on the oral use of vitamin B6 for dental decay during pregnancy. Details: Meta-analyses of limited clinical research show that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), 25 mg daily or a single dose of 100 mg orally or intramuscularly, may reduce the risk of dental decay during pregnancy when compared with placebo (83046,96166).
• Depression. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 reduces the risk of developing depression or improves symptoms of depression. Details: Clinical research in healthy college students shows that taking vitamin B6 100 mg daily for one month does not reduce depression scores when compared with placebo (1104453). However, because a diagnosis of depression was not a requirement for study participation, it is unclear if these findings can be generalized to patients diagnosed with depression. Whether vitamin B6 reduces the risk of developing depression is also unclear. A meta-analysis of population research has found that the highest dietary intake of vitamin B6 is associated with a 19% lower risk of depression when compared with the lowest intake. However, sub-analyses suggest that this association is only relevant in females and not males (107133). In one individual population study in community dwelling older adults included in the analysis, the consumption of at least 1.71 mg of vitamin B6 daily from food was associated with a 43% reduction in the likelihood of becoming depressed when compared with the consumption of 1.33 mg or less daily in females. However, there was no association between vitamin B6 levels and risk of depression in males, and the finding in females was no longer significant when adjusted for total energy intake, since foods rich in vitamin B6 are energy-dense (96168). Another observational longitudinal study in healthy adults starting oral contraceptives containing ethinyl estradiol and levonorgestrel has found that taking vitamin B6 25 mg daily for 6-12 months is associated with a 40% lower risk of depression when compared with no supplementation (90789). Most available studies are cross-sectional in nature, making any conclusions related to causation difficult.
• Diabetes. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial in patients with type 2 diabetes or gestational diabetes. Details: Observational research in Chinese adults with type 2 diabetes has found that dietary intake of vitamin B6 in the highest quartile is associated with 53% lower odds of developing cardiovascular disease, defined as a non-fatal myocardial infarction, non-fatal stroke, or hospitalization for unstable angina, when compared with vitamin B6 intake in the lowest quartile (110452). Small clinical studies in patients with gestational diabetes and vitamin B6 deficiency shows that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 100 mg daily for 2 weeks improves glucose tolerance and blood glucose levels when compared with baseline (82967,83088). However, there is concern that these findings were confounded by dietary alterations. This benefit was not observed in a subsequent small case series in patients with gestational diabetes (22380).
• Diabetic neuropathy. Oral vitamin B6 has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research suggests that taking a combination of B vitamins, including folic acid (L-methylfolate), vitamin B12 (methylcobalamin), and vitamin B6 (pyridoxal-5'-phosphate) for 24 weeks does not improve neural dysfunction based on vibration perception when compared with placebo in patients with diabetic neuropathy. However, taking this combination appears to modestly improve neuropathy symptoms and quality of life related to mental functioning when compared with placebo (90375).
• Dysmenorrhea. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial in patients with dysmenorrhea. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking vitamin B6 (form not specified) 200 mg daily reduces pain associated with dysmenorrhea when compared with placebo. However, taking vitamin B6 in combination with magnesium does not reduce pain when compared with placebo (77388).
• Fibromyalgia. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial in patients with fibromyalgia. Details: A small clinical study in patients with fibromyalgia shows that taking vitamin B6 80 mg daily for 8 weeks does not improve pain, disease severity, anxiety, depression, or quality of life when compared with placebo (110454).
• Gastroenteritis-associated nausea and vomiting. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial in children with gastroenteritis. Details: A small clinical study in children aged 6 months to 12 years with acute viral gastroenteritis shows that taking vitamin B6 (form not specified) does not improve symptoms of dehydration or the frequency of vomiting when compared with placebo (90793).
• Hypertension. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 reduces blood pressure. Details: One small clinical study in patients with essential hypertension shows that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine hydrochloride) 5 mg/kg daily for 4 weeks can reduce systolic and diastolic blood pressure when compared with baseline (83091). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a control group.
• Hypertriglyceridemia. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 reduces triglyceride levels. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that vitamin B6 (form not specified) 50 mg daily for 12 weeks does not reduce triglyceride levels in people with hypertriglyceridemia when compared with placebo. However, vitamin B6 appears to decrease total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol by approximately 9% in these patients (59028).
• Infertility. Although there is interest in using oral vitamin B6 for infertility, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of vitamin B6 for this condition.
• Insomnia. Oral vitamin B6 has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research in healthy adults with self-reported sleep difficulty shows that taking a specific product (LZ Complex3, Sanofi Consumer Healthcare Pty Ltd.) containing vitamin B6, zizyphus extract, hops extract, hydrolyzed milk protein (Lactium), and magnesium oxide nightly, 30 minutes before bed, for 2 weeks does not improve sleep quality, daytime functioning, or physical fatigue when compared with placebo. However, due to the large improvement seen in both the treatment and placebo groups, the effectiveness of this product is unclear (95971).
• Isoniazid-induced neuropathy. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 prevents the development of neuropathy in patients taking isoniazid. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients taking isoniazid for tuberculosis shows that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 6 mg daily reduces the development of neuropathy when compared with control (83068).
• Lactation. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 helps to suppress postpartum lactation. Details: A meta-analysis of two small clinical trials shows that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 400-600 mg daily for 6-7 days postpartum does not suppress lactation when compared with no treatment (83047).
• Levetiracetam-induced side effects. While some conflicting evidence exists, several small, low-quality studies suggest that oral vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) may reduce some neuropsychiatric adverse effects related to the use of levetiracetam. Details: In an analysis of case reports, retrospective studies, and a single low-quality prospective study, improvement in levetiracetam-associated neuropsychiatric symptoms occurred in approximately 73% of patients taking pyridoxine (107137). A more recent preliminary clinical trial in children ages 1-17 years shows that taking pyridoxine 10 or 15 mg/kg daily as needed based on symptoms improves behavioral side effects associated with levetiracetam by a small amount when compared with low-dose pyridoxine 0.5 mg/kg daily used as placebo (107124). Also, observational research in children ages 9 months to 14 years has found that taking vitamin B6 is associated with improved behavior and a 44% lower risk of levetiracetam discontinuation when compared with no vitamin B6 supplementation (110455). Some observational research in adults with levetiracetam-associated irritability has found that taking vitamin B6 is associated with an improvement in irritability in 45% of patients when compared to baseline (107129). However, a small clinical trial in adults with epilepsy shows that taking pyridoxine 40 mg daily for 3 weeks does not improve levetiracetam-related psychiatric adverse effects when compared with placebo (110456). This study may have been underpowered to detect differences between groups. Pyridoxine doses used in the studies above have ranged from 50-400 mg daily in children and 40-600 mg daily in adults (107124,107129,107137,110456).
• Lung cancer. It is unclear if dietary or oral vitamin B6 reduces lung cancer risk. Details: Epidemiological research has found that higher serum levels of vitamin B6 in male smokers is associated with a lower risk of lung cancer (9454). Also, people with blood levels of vitamin B6 in the top quartile have a modestly lower risk of lung cancer when compared with those whose levels are in the lowest quartile. The association is stronger for males and for people who have smoked (97999). However, other epidemiological research found that increased dietary intake of vitamin B6 is not associated with a reduced risk of lung cancer (96164).
• Menopausal symptoms. Although there is interest in using oral vitamin B6 for menopausal symptoms, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of vitamin B6 for this condition.
• Motion sickness. Although there is interest in using oral vitamin B6 for motion sickness, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of vitamin B6 for this condition.
• Nausea and vomiting. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial for nausea and vomiting in patients using oral contraceptives. Details: An observational longitudinal study in healthy females taking oral contraceptives containing ethinyl estradiol and levonorgestrel has found that taking vitamin B6 25 mg daily for 6-12 months is associated with a 43% reduced risk of nausea when compared with no supplementation (90789).
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 for patients with NAFLD. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with NAFLD shows that taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 30 mg three times daily for 12 weeks does not reduce levels of liver transaminases or plasma lipids when compared with baseline. However, hepatic fat accumulation was modestly reduced (107130). The validity of this study is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Obesity. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 in beneficial in overweight or obese individuals. Details: A small clinical trial in females with a body mass index (BMI) of at least 25 kg/m² shows that taking vitamin B6 as pyridoxine 80 mg daily for 8 weeks reduces fat mass and improves insulin resistance and triglyceride levels by a small amount when compared with placebo. Although some other anthropometric and metabolic indices were improved when compared with baseline, there was no effect of pyridoxine on body weight, visceral adiposity, or other endpoints when compared with placebo (107131).
• Overall mortality. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 reduces the risk of overall mortality. Details: Observational research in US adults has found that dietary intake of vitamin B6 in the highest quintile is associated with a 12% to 21% lower risk of all-cause mortality and a 31% to 44% lower risk of cardiovascular mortality when compared with the lowest quintile of dietary vitamin B6 intake (110451).
• Pancreatic cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 reduces the risk of pancreatic cancer. Details: Observational research has found that higher dietary intake of vitamin B6 is associated with a 37% lower risk of developing pancreatic cancer when compared with lower intake (104927).
• Postpartum depression. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial in patients with postpartum depression. Details: Preliminary clinical research in individuals considered at increased risk for postpartum depression, but without clinical depression, shows that taking vitamin B6 80 mg daily from the 28th week of pregnancy until birth, and then 40 mg daily for one month, reduces symptoms of depression 1.5 months after birth when compared with baseline (measured during the third trimester) and when compared with placebo. However, it is unclear if any of the patients included in the study developed postpartum depression, as there were no changes in overall symptoms in patients taking placebo (107126).
• Restless legs syndrome (RLS). It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial in patients with RLS. Details: A small clinical study in adults with RLS who are beginning treatment with pramipexole shows that also taking vitamin B6 40 mg daily for 2 months moderately improves RLS scores and sleep quality scores when compared with pramipexole and placebo (110052).
• Schizophrenia. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial for patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Details: Clinical research in male patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia who are on a consistent antipsychotic dose shows that adding vitamin B6 300 mg twice daily for 16 weeks modestly improves psychotic symptoms and some measures of cognitive performance when compared with adding aripiprazole 5 mg twice daily (107128). More research is needed to determine if these benefits are clinically relevant.
• Seizures. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 is beneficial for preventing seizures in patients with glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) deficiency. Details: Observational case series in a small number of children and young adults with GPI deficiency has found that taking vitamin B6 20-30 mg/kg daily for 3-12 months is associated with some reduction in seizure frequency in 9 of 13 patients. However, no patient reached seizure freedom (107125,107135). In one case series, treatment for 12 months was associated with modest developmental improvements in almost all patients (107135). The study patient populations were slightly different in terms of age and underlying genetic causes for GPI deficiency.
• Sickle cell disease. Oral vitamin B6 has only been evaluated in combination with other B vitamins; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with sickle cell disease shows that taking vitamin B6 4.2-6 mg, vitamin B12 4.2-6 mcg, and folic acid 700 mcg daily might lower homocysteine levels. However, it is unknown if this will reduce the risk of endothelial damage in these patients (9324).
• Stroke. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6, either alone or with other B vitamins, is beneficial for stroke prevention. Details: There is some debate about whether supplementation with homocysteine-lowering B vitamins, including vitamin B6, can reduce the risk of stroke. A number of clinical studies and meta-analyses show that supplementation with folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12, alone or in combination, does not reduce the risk of stroke in patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD) or impaired kidney function (11387,13482,50423,83050,96150). However, a more recent meta-analysis of 10 clinical trials, including over 44,000 patients at risk for or with a history of CVD, shows that B vitamin supplementation reduces the relative risk of stroke by 10% when compared with placebo (97619). This meta-analysis differed from some of the earlier analyses due to the inclusion of several additional clinical trials. Also, another meta-analysis of three clinical trials including 9900 patients with a history of stroke shows that B vitamin supplementation reduces the relative risk of stroke recurrence by 13% when compared with placebo, although this finding was determined to have a low level of certainty. Based on two clinical trials, there was also a 17% reduced risk of vascular death and an 11% reduction in the combined risk of stroke, myocardial infarction, and vascular death (107136). In 2001, prior to the publication of the highest quality research on this topic, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) allowed a qualified health claim stating that, as part of a well-balanced diet that is low in saturated fat and cholesterol, folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 may reduce the risk of vascular disease (102368). Unfortunately, even after the publication of higher quality research, it is still unclear which specific combination of B vitamins is optimal and which patients are most likely to benefit. One network meta-analysis shows that a combination of folic acid and vitamin B6 lowers the risk of stroke more effectively than B vitamin mixtures that include vitamin B12 (96165). However, this analysis is limited because it didn't account for dosing. Exposure to low, but not high amounts, of vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) seems to reduce stroke risk (96150).
• Tardive dyskinesia. It is unclear if oral vitamin B6 prevents tardive dyskinesia in patients taking neuroleptic drugs. Details: A small clinical study in patients taking neuroleptic drugs for schizophrenia shows that taking vitamin B6 (form not specified) 400 mg daily seems to improve Parkinsonian, dystonic, and dyskinetic symptoms when compared with placebo (8558).
• Tourette syndrome. Oral vitamin B6 has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small, nonblinded clinical study in children aged 4-17 years with untreated Tourette syndrome or with chronic tic disorder and associated symptoms of anxiety shows that taking a liquid nutritional supplement providing vitamin B6 2.8 mg and L-theanine 200 mg daily for 2 months improves scores on the Yale Global Tic Severity Scale, but does not reduce anxiety, when compared with patients receiving psychoeducation (108555). This study may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups.
• Vincristine-induced neuropathy. Oral vitamin B6 has only been evaluated in combination with pyridostigmine; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in children ages 11 months to 13 years with neuropathy due to vincristine treatment for acute lymphoblastic leukemia, shows that taking vitamin B6 150 mg/m2 and pyridostigmine 3 mg/kg twice daily for 3 months is associated with reduced severity of sensory and motor neuropathy when compared with baseline (104928). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a control group. More evidence is needed to rate vitamin B6 for these uses.

(Read more about VITAMIN B6)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately for medicinal purposes, short-term. Flaxseed oil has been used safely in doses up to 2 grams daily for up to 6 months. Higher doses of up to 24 grams daily has been safely used for up to 7 weeks (845,3912,5898,14443,16789,16791,16794,16795,17523,101951,101952,101955).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used topically for medicinal purposes, short-term. Flaxseed oil has been used safely on the wrist for up to 4 weeks (25691). ...when used in eye drops twice daily for up to 90 days (101953).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately, short-term. Some evidence suggests that flaxseed oil, providing 200 mg of alpha-linolenic acid, can be safely used in children for up to 3 months (14443).

PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately for medicinal purposes, short-term. Although flaxseed oil has been used with apparent safety in clinical research in doses of 1-2 grams daily for up to 6 weeks (96432,101957), some population research has found that consuming flaxseed oil during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy is associated with a four-fold increased risk of premature birth (16797).

LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

(Read more about FLAXSEED OIL)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in doses that do not exceed the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 100 mg daily for adults (15). ...when used parenterally and appropriately. Injectable vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is an FDA-approved prescription product (15).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in doses of 101-200 mg daily (6243,8558).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in doses at or above 500 mg daily. High doses, especially those exceeding 1000 mg daily or total doses of 1000 grams or more, pose the most risk. However, neuropathy can occur with lower daily or total doses (6243,8195). ...when used intramuscularly in high doses and frequency due to potential for rhabdomyolysis (90795).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately (3094).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately in amounts exceeding the recommended dietary allowance (5049,8579,107124,107125,107135).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in excessive doses, long-term (3094).

PREGNANCY: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately. A special sustained-release product providing vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 75 mg daily is FDA-approved for use in pregnancy. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is also considered a first-line treatment for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy by the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology (111601). However, it should not be used long-term or without medical supervision and close monitoring.

PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in excessive doses. There is some concern that high-dose maternal vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) can cause neonatal seizures (4609,6397,8197).

LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in doses not exceeding the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) (3094). The RDA in lactating women is 2 mg daily. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of vitamin B6 when used in higher doses in breast-feeding women.

(Read more about VITAMIN B6)

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, using flaxseed oil in combination with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs might have additive effects and increase the risk of bleeding.  Details Small clinical studies show that consuming flaxseed oil might decrease platelet aggregation and increase bleeding time (5898,21912).

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, combining flaxseed oil with other antihypertensive drugs might have additive effects and increase the risk of hypotension.  Details Some clinical evidence suggests that long-term consumption of flaxseed oil can modestly lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure, while other clinical research shows no effect (16793,96426,101941,101954,111063,111067).

EZETIMIBE (Zetia) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Concomitant use of flaxseed oil and ezetimibe reduces the absorption of alpha-linolenic acid from flaxseed oil.  Details In one clinical study, concomitant consumption of ezetimibe 10 mg daily with flaxseed oil 2 grams providing 1 gram of alpha-linolenic acid daily blocked the absorption of alpha-linolenic acid, resulting in an overall reduction in alpha-linolenic plasma levels from baseline (96433).

(Read more about FLAXSEED OIL)

AMIODARONE (Cordarone) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, vitamin B6 might increase the photosensitivity caused by amiodarone.  Details Despite initial case reports suggesting that pyridoxine may have a protective effect against amiodarone-induced photosensitivity, preliminary clinical research suggests that pyridoxine may actually exacerbate this adverse effect (8892,8893).

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, vitamin B6 may have additive effects when used with antihypertensive drugs.  Details Research in hypertensive rats shows that vitamin B6 can decrease systolic blood pressure (30859,82959,83093). Similarly, clinical research in patients with hypertension shows that taking high doses of vitamin B6 may reduce systolic and diastolic blood pressure, possibly by reducing plasma levels of epinephrine and norepinephrine (83091).

LEVODOPA Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = D Vitamin B6 may increase the metabolism of levodopa when taken alone, but not when taken in conjunction with carbidopa.  Details Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) enhances the metabolism of levodopa, reducing its clinical effects. However, this interaction does not occur when carbidopa is used concurrently with levodopa (Sinemet). Therefore, it is not likely to be a problem in most people (3046).

PHENOBARBITAL (Luminal) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D High doses of vitamin B6 may reduce the levels and clinical effects of phenobarbital.  Details Preliminary clinical evidence suggests that vitamin B6 200 mg daily can reduce plasma levels of phenobarbital, possibly by increasing metabolism. It is not known whether lower doses have any effect. Advise people taking phenobarbital to avoid high doses of vitamin B6 (3046,10801).

PHENYTOIN (Dilantin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D High doses of vitamin B6 may reduce the levels and clinical effects of phenytoin.  Details Preliminary clinical evidence suggests that vitamin B6 200 mg daily can reduce plasma levels of phenytoin, possibly by increasing metabolism. It is not known whether lower doses have any effect. Advise people taking phenytoin to avoid high doses of vitamin B6 (3046,10801).

(Read more about VITAMIN B6)

General ...Orally, flaxseed oil is generally well tolerated. Topically, flaxseed oil seems to be well-tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Topically: Itching, redness.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Severe allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis.

Endocrine ...Orally, flaxseed oil might cause gynecomastia. In a case report, a 70-year-old male developed gynecomastia after taking flaxseed oil daily for 3 months. Discontinuing flaxseed oil lead to resolution of gynecomastia (105478).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, flaxseed oil may cause a change in bowel habits, dry mouth, and dyspepsia when taken at a dose of about 5 grams daily. However, these effects have been reported by only a small number of patients (approximately 3%) (16794). High doses of flaxseed oil (30 grams per day and higher) have been associated with loose stools and diarrhea (5898,11025).

Immunologic ...Severe allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis have been reported with flaxseed oil ingestion and also in workers processing flaxseed products (6809).

Ocular/Otic ...Topically, eye drops containing flaxseed oil may cause redness and itching (101953).

Oncologic ...Flaxseed oil has not been linked to increased prostate cancer risk. Although epidemiologic research has found that high dietary intake of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is associated with increased prostate cancer risk (1337,2558,7147,7823,12978), this risk does not seem to apply to ALA from plant sources, like flaxseed (12909).

(Read more about FLAXSEED OIL)

General ...Orally or by injection, vitamin B6 is well tolerated in doses less than 100 mg daily.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally or by injection: Abdominal pain, allergic reactions, headache, heartburn, loss of appetite, nausea, somnolence, vomiting.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally or by injection: Sensory neuropathy (high doses).

Dermatologic ...Orally, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) has been linked to reports of skin and other allergic reactions and photosensitivity (8195,9479,90375). High-dose vitamin B6 (80 mg daily as pyridoxine) and vitamin B12 (20 mcg daily) have been associated with cases of rosacea fulminans characterized by intense erythema with nodules, papules, and pustules. Symptoms may persist for up to 4 months after the supplement is stopped, and may require treatment with systemic corticosteroids and topical therapy (10998).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally or by injection, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) can cause nausea, vomiting, heartburn, abdominal pain, mild diarrhea, and loss of appetite (8195,9479,16306,83064,83103,107124,107127,107135). In a clinical trial, one patient experienced infectious gastroenteritis that was deemed possibly related to taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) orally up to 20 mg/kg daily (90796). One small case-control study has raised concern that long-term dietary vitamin B6 intake in amounts ranging from 3.56-6.59 mg daily can increase the risk of ulcerative colitis (3350).

Hematologic ...Orally or by injection, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) can cause decreased serum folic acid concentrations (8195,9479). One case of persistent bleeding of unknown origin has been reported in a clinical trial for a patient who used vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 100 mg twice daily on days 16 to 35 of the menstrual cycle (83103). It is unclear if this effect was due to vitamin B6 intake.

Musculoskeletal ...Orally or by injection, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) can cause breast soreness or enlargement (8195).

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally or by injection, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) can cause headache, paresthesia, and somnolence (8195,9479,16306). Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) can also cause sensory neuropathy, which is related to daily dose and duration of intake. Doses exceeding 1000 mg daily or total doses of 1000 grams or more pose the most risk, although neuropathy can occur with lower daily or total doses as well (8195). The mechanism of the neurotoxicity is unknown, but is thought to occur when the liver's capacity to phosphorylate pyridoxine via the active coenzyme pyridoxal phosphate is exceeded (8204). Some researchers recommend taking vitamin B6 as pyridoxal phosphate to avoid pyridoxine neuropathy, but its safety is unknown (8204). Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) neuropathy is characterized by numbness and impairment of the sense of position and vibration of the distal limbs, and a gradual progressive sensory ataxia (8196,10439). The syndrome is usually reversible with discontinuation of pyridoxine at the first appearance of neurologic symptoms. Residual symptoms have been reported in patients taking more than 2 grams daily for extended periods (8195,8196). Tell patients daily doses of 100 mg or less are unlikely to cause problems (3094).

Oncologic ...In females, population research has found that a median intake of vitamin B6 1. 63 mg daily is associated with a 3.6-fold increased risk of rectal cancer when compared with a median intake of 1.05 mg daily (83024). A post-hoc subgroup analysis of results from clinical research in adults with a history of recent stroke or ischemic attack suggests that taking folic acid, vitamin B12, and vitamin B6 does not increase cancer risk overall, although it was associated with an increased risk of cancer in patients who also had diabetes (90378). Also, in patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma, population research has found that consuming at least 8.6 mg daily of supplemental vitamin B6 during treatment was associated with a lower overall survival rate over 5 years, as well as a reduced progression-free survival, when compared with non-users and those with intakes of up to 8.6 mg daily (107134).

(Read more about VITAMIN B6)