Vitamin K2 by Forefront Health

EFFECTIVE

• Hemorrhagic disease. Oral or intramuscular vitamin K1 is effective for preventing hemorrhagic disease in newborns. Details: Vitamin K1 (phytonadione) administered orally or intramuscularly can prevent classic hemorrhagic disease of newborns (15,85367,85484). A single intramuscular administration of vitamin K1 1 mg is considered to be the most effective method, while oral administration of three doses of vitamin K1 1-2 mg over 8 weeks is considered to be an acceptable alternative (85506). The effects of vitamin K on late hemorrhagic disease of newborns is less clear (85367,85484). In the Netherlands, an oral dose of 25 mcg daily for 3 months was used until 2011, when it was increased to 150 mcg daily. A reduction of late intracranial vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the general pediatric population, from 1.6 per 100,000 to 1.3 per 100,000, was associated with this dose increase (102351).
• Hypoprothrombinemia. Oral or parenteral vitamin K1 is effective for treating and preventing hypoprothrombinemia. Details: Vitamin K1 (phytonadione) 2.5-25 mg, used orally or parenterally, can prevent and treat hypoprothrombinemia caused by vitamin K deficiency or induced by salicylates, sulfonamides, quinine, quinidine, or broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy (15).
• Vitamin K-dependent clotting factors deficiency (VKCFD). Oral and intravenous vitamin K1 is the primary treatment for VKCFD. Details: Oral supplementation with vitamin K 10 mg two to three times weekly seems to prevent major hemorrhages and reduce mucocutaneous bleeding in individuals with VKCFD. Also, intravenous vitamin K may improve the prothrombin time-international normalized ratio (PT-INR) values in these patients. While vitamin K supplementation is the primary treatment method for VKCFD, the response to treatment varies significantly (85481).
• Warfarin anticoagulation. Oral and intravenous vitamin K1 reverse warfarin-related excessive anticoagulation. Evidence for the use of oral vitamin K1 in patients with an unstable INR is conflicting. Details: Taking vitamin K1 (phytonadione) orally or parenterally, but not subcutaneously, can counteract excessive warfarin anticoagulation and restore therapeutic international normalized ratio (INR) levels. Usually a single dose of 1-5 mg is used (85406,85425,85429). Vitamin K might also be effective for stabilizing warfarin anticoagulation in patients with low intake of vitamin K. Patients with a low dietary vitamin K intake are significantly more likely to have an unstable INR than those who ingest higher amounts of vitamin K (16803). It is thought that vitamin K-depleted patients become more sensitive when vitamin K is ingested, even in small quantities, resulting in erratic or unstable INR (16804). One small clinical study and one small retrospective chart review show that taking oral vitamin K1 (phytonadione) 100-150 mcg daily improves INR stability in patients taking warfarin who previously had an unstable INR (16805,16806). However, a larger clinical study found no significant differences in INR stability in patients taking vitamin K 100 mcg daily when compared with placebo (16807). Also, some research suggests that, although taking vitamin K 1250 mcg daily may reduce INR in patients with excessive warfarin anticoagulation more significantly than placebo, there may not be a significant difference in the risk of bleeding complications (23380). It is important to keep in mind that, if a patient is stabilized on warfarin therapy plus vitamin K supplementation, discontinuing vitamin K can significantly increase the INR within 2-3 weeks after discontinuation (17714). The most recent guidelines by the American College of Chest Physicians do not recommend routine use of vitamin K supplementation for patients on warfarin therapy with unstable INR (94926). However, the previous guidelines recommended vitamin K 100-200 mcg daily for these patients. Therefore, some providers still use vitamin K for this purpose (16808).

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Osteoporosis. Oral vitamin K might reduce the risk of fractures and bone loss in patients with osteoporosis. However, it may not be beneficial in patients at risk for developing osteoporosis. Details: Although observational and clinical research on dietary and supplemental vitamin K for osteoporosis has been conflicting (14364,85392,85445,102354), overall, vitamin K supplementation seems to slightly reduce fracture risk (102354). A meta-analysis combining data from 36 heterogeneous studies in osteoporotic or postmenopausal patients shows that taking different regimens of either vitamin K1 or vitamin K2 is associated with a small reduction in clinical fractures (from 3.1% to 2.2%), but not with changes in vertebral fractures or BMD when compared with control (102354). This analysis is limited by the high variability in study designs and a lack of subgroup analyses stratifying different patient populations and forms of vitamin K. An older meta-analysis of 19 clinical studies in osteoporotic or postmenopausal patients shows that taking vitamin K2 (menaquinone) 45 mg, primarily used in the MK-4 form, daily does not reduce the risk of fractures when compared with control, although there was a non-significant trend towards a reduction (91451). A sensitivity analysis that excluded the largest negative study of over 4000 postmenopausal Japanese females with mild osteoporosis (85456), showed that vitamin K2 45 mg daily reduces the risk of fractures by 53% and improves lumbar and vertebral BMD in patients with osteoporosis when compared with control (91451). This effect was not seen in patients without osteoporosis (91451). Vitamin K2 also does not seem to benefit patients with osteopenia. A recent clinical trial in postmenopausal patients with osteopenia shows that taking a larger dose of vitamin K2 (375 mcg, MK-7) with calcium 800 mg and vitamin D 1500 IU daily for 3 years does not seem to affect BMD, bone turnover, or bone microarchitecture when compared with placebo (105035). Vitamin K1 (phytonadione) has also been evaluated, with mixed findings. One clinical study in postmenopausal patients with osteopenia shows that taking vitamin K1 5 mg daily with calcium 1500 and vitamin D 800 IU for up to 4 years reduces clinical fractures, but does not reduce clinical fragility fractures or improve BMD, when compared with placebo and vitamin D with calcium (85453). In healthy, non-osteoporotic patients ages 60-80 years, one clinical study shows that taking vitamin K1 500 mcg daily with calcium 600 mg and vitamin D 400 IU for 3 years does not affect BMD, despite increased plasma vitamin K levels and reduced undercarboxylated osteocalcin concentrations, when compared with taking calcium and vitamin D alone (16404). The same null effect on BMD and a reduced undercarboxylated osteocalcin was shown in a small clinical study in patients with Crohn disease without osteoporosis, taking vitamin K1 1-2 mg in combination with vitamin D3 400 IU and calcium 500 mg daily for 12 months (91454).

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Intraventricular hemorrhage. Oral vitamin K does not reduce the risk of periventricular hemorrhage in preterm infants. Details: A meta-analysis of results from clinical research shows that administering vitamin K to pregnant patients at risk for very preterm birth does not reduce the overall risk of periventricular hemorrhage in preterm infants, perinatal mortality, or the associated neurological injury by the age of 7 years when compared to control. A subgroup analysis shows that vitamin K might reduce the risk of severe periventricular hemorrhage by 42% in preterm infants. However, when trials with inadequate blinding were excluded, this result was not statistically significant (85469).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Athletic performance. It is unclear if oral vitamin K2 improves athletic performance. Details: A small clinical study shows that taking vitamin K2 (menaquinone) 320 mcg orally daily for 4 weeks followed by 160 mg daily for 4 weeks, increases maximal cardiac output by 12% when compared with placebo in trained athletes performing standardized cycle ergometer exercise tests (95937).
• Beta-thalassemia. Oral vitamin K2 has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking the menaquinone-7 (MK-7) form of vitamin K2 50 mcg daily plus vitamin D3 (calcitriol) 5 mcg daily for 12 months modestly improves bone mineral density (BMD) at the lumbar spine when compared to baseline in children with beta-thalassemia aged 3-18 years (91456). It is not clear if this improvement can be attributed to vitamin K, vitamin D3, or the combination.
• Breast cancer. It is unclear if dietary intake of vitamin K2 reduces the risk of breast cancer. Details: Population research has found that higher dietary intake of vitamin K2 (menaquinone) or vitamin K1 (phytonadione) is not associated with a reduced risk of premenopausal or postmenopausal breast cancer (85474).
• Cancer. It is unclear if dietary intake of vitamin K reduces the risk of cancer or cancer-related mortality. Details: One large population study involving healthy German patients has found that consuming more than 42-46 mcg of vitamin K2 (menaquinone) daily is associated with a 27% reduced risk of cancer mortality, but not cancer incidence, when compared with consuming less than 23-26 mcg daily. Dietary intake of vitamin K1 (phytonadione) was not associated with the risk of cancer or cancer mortality (85474). Another population study involving Mediterranean patients at high risk for cardiovascular disease has found that consuming about 630 mcg of vitamin K1 daily is associated with a 46% lower risk of cancer mortality when compared with consuming about 171 mcg of vitamin K1 daily. However, higher dietary intake of vitamin K2, 87 mcg daily, was not associated with a lower risk of cancer mortality when compared to those with lower dietary intake (79 mcg daily) (91452). Reasons for these discrepancies may relate to the definitions for high and low intake, the use of different databases to calculate vitamin K intake, and the different populations studied.
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is unclear if dietary or supplemental vitamin K reduces the risk of CVD events; the available research is conflicting. Details: Most population research, including a meta-analysis of 21 observational cohort studies, has found that dietary intake of vitamin K1 (phytonadione) or vitamin K2 (menaquinone) is not associated with reduced risk for most cardiovascular events, such as CVD mortality, nonfatal MI, or stroke, although there might be a slightly reduced risk for CHD (85414,85482,91452,102353,103922). However, some population studies have found benefit. Observational research in a Danish cohort aged 50-65 years with no history of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease at baseline shows that those in the highest quintile of dietary vitamin K1 intake have a 21% lower risk of CVD-related hospitalization and complications, such as ischemic heart disease, ischemic stroke, or peripheral artery disease, over 17-22 years when compared with the lowest quintile of intake. This inverse association tapers off at intakes above 100 mcg daily. For vitamin K2 intake, the highest quintile has a 14% lower risk of hospitalization when compared with the lowest quintile, although the association is U-shaped, indicating an increased risk at high doses. The researchers theorize that this may be due to the fact that vitamin K2-rich foods include cheese, eggs, and butter (109910,109920). There is also interest in using vitamin K to slow aortic valve calcification (AVC) and coronary artery calcification (CAC), which are CVD risk factors. In healthy patients ages 60-80 years with pre-existing CAC, taking a multivitamin with vitamin K1 (phytonadione) 500 mcg orally daily for 3 years reduces CAC progression by 6% when compared with the multivitamin alone (85461). However, research in patients with AVC has found no benefit. One small clinical study in patients on hemodialysis shows that taking the menaquinone-7 form of vitamin K2, 200 mcg orally daily for 1 year, does not affect the rate of AVC progression when compared with placebo (102352). Also, clinical research in males with significant AVC shows that taking the menaquinone-7 form of vitamin K2 720 mcg and vitamin D 25 mcg orally daily for 2 years does not reduce the rate of AVC progression or the rate of cardiovascular events, heart valve surgery, or all-cause mortality when compared with placebo (109916).
• Cataracts. It is unclear if dietary vitamin K reduces the risk of cataracts in older adults. Details: A secondary analysis of results from clinical research has found that higher dietary vitamin K1 (phytonadione) intake over a mean 5.6 years' follow-up is associated with a lower risk of cataracts and a lower incidence of cataract surgery in older adults at high risk for cardiovascular disease. The hazard ratio for developing cataracts was 0.71 and the hazard ratio for cataract surgery was 0.75 for people in the highest tertile of dietary vitamin K1 intake when compared with the lowest tertile (95936).
• Cognitive impairment. It is unclear if dietary vitamin K alters the rate of decline in adults with cognitive impairment. Details: Clinical research in adults aged 55-75 years with overweight or obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cognitive impairment shows that the largest increases in dietary vitamin K intake over a 2-year period are linked to a slower rate of cognitive decline when compared with the lowest increases in intake. This is demonstrated by higher scores on the mini-mental state examination (MMSE) and verbal fluency tests, and a greater number of patients maintaining an MMSE score of at least 24 (109919).
• Colorectal cancer. It is unclear if dietary intake of vitamin K2 reduces the risk of colorectal cancer. Details: Population research has found that higher dietary intake of vitamin K2 (menaquinone) or vitamin K1 (phytonadione) is not associated with a reduced risk of colorectal cancer (85474).
• Cystic fibrosis. It is unclear if oral vitamin K improves coagulopathy in patients with cystic fibrosis. Details: Suboptimal vitamin K status is common in patients with cystic fibrosis, especially those with pancreatic insufficiency, due to problems with fat digestion (85359,85479). Preliminary clinical research in patients with cystic fibrosis shows that taking vitamin K 1-5 mg orally for one month might decrease osteocalcin levels when compared with baseline, which suggests a lower risk of bone fractures (103920). Also, a small clinical trial in adults and children with cystic fibrosis and pancreatic insufficiency shows that taking a supplement containing fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K for an average of 8.6 months reduces the number of patients with abnormal levels of protein induced by vitamin K absence (PIVKA-II), a defective form of prothrombin (85374).
• Depression. It is unclear if dietary intake of vitamin K reduces depression. Details: Population research has found that a dietary intake of vitamin K greater than 232 mcg daily is associated with reduced odds of depressive symptoms when compared with intakes of less than 83 mcg daily in older adults who are not taking vitamin D supplements. For every 100 mcg increase in vitamin K intake per day, the study found an 18% reduction in odds of depressive symptoms. However, there was no association identified in individuals taking vitamin D (100181). The effect of vitamin K for the prevention or treatment of clinical depression has not been investigated.
• Diabetes. It is unclear if oral vitamin K1 improves glycemic control in patients with diabetes. Details: A small clinical study in patients with diabetes who are taking oral antidiabetes medications shows that taking vitamin K2 (MK-7) 180 mcg twice daily for 12 weeks seems to reduce glycated hemoglobin by 1.6%, compared with a slight increase in the placebo group (105034). This study is limited due to high dropout rate in the placebo group.
• EGFR inhibitor-induced acneiform rash. It is unclear if topical vitamin K is beneficial for the treatment or prevention of acneiform rash caused by EGFR inhibitors. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults receiving treatment with cetuximab, an EGFR inhibitor, shows that applying vitamin K1 (phytonadione) 0.1% cream (Vigorskin, Merck Serono SpA) twice daily to the face and trunk for 12 weeks may modestly reduce the percentage of patients who develop a moderate to severe acneiform rash (91455). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a control group. In patients with an existing rash after receiving the EGFR inhibitors cetuximab and panitumumab, a small clinical study shows that applying vitamin K1 (phytonadione) 1% ointment twice daily for 8 weeks to half of the affected area does not reduce the number of acneiform eruptions when compared with using placebo ointment on the other half of the affected area (103919). Patients in this study were allowed to use concomitant antibiotics and moisturizing agents, which may have confounded the results.
• Kidney failure. It is unclear if oral vitamin K2 reduces the incidence or severity of muscle cramps in adults with kidney failure. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients on maintenance hemodialysis for at least 3 months with treatment-resistant muscle cramps shows that taking the menaquinone form of vitamin K2 360 mcg orally daily for 8 weeks reduces the frequency, severity, and duration of muscle cramps when compared with placebo (109917).
• Kidney transplant. It is unclear if vitamin K is beneficial for reducing cardiovascular risk in kidney transplant recipients. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with a stable kidney transplant for at least 1 year shows that taking vitamin K (menadiol diphosphate) 5 mg orally three times weekly for 1 year does not reduce aortic stiffness or coronary artery calcification, which are markers of cardiovascular disease, when compared with placebo (109913). The effects of long-term supplementation are unclear.
• Liver cancer. Small clinical studies suggests that vitamin K2 reduces mortality and the risk for hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence. Details: Meta-analyses of 9-11 small clinical trials in patients with resectable hepatocellular carcinoma show that adding vitamin K2 45 mg daily for up to 3 years seems to reduce cancer recurrence by 9.5% and reduce the risk of mortality by 7% when compared with control. Meta-analyses of 3-4 small clinical trials in patients with non-resectable carcinoma show that taking vitamin K2 45 mg for up to 2 years seems to reduce cancer recurrence by 3% and reduce mortality by 16% when compared with control (105032). Most of the included studies were conducted in Japan, so it is unclear if these results are generalizable to other geographic locations.
• Liver disease. It is unclear if dietary intake of vitamin K reduces the risk of liver disease. Details: A small observational study in patients with chronic liver failure due to cholestatic liver disease has found that receiving intramuscular vitamin K1 10 mg daily for an average of 16 days is associated with a lower risk of death when compared with control (103926).
• Lung cancer. It is unclear if dietary intake of vitamin K reduces the risk of lung cancer. Details: Population research has found that consuming greater than 42-46 mcg of vitamin K2 (menaquinone) daily is associated with a 62% lower risk of lung cancer occurrence and a 59% lower risk of lung cancer mortality when compared to those who consume less than 23-26 mcg of vitamin K2 daily. Dietary intake of vitamin K1 (phytonadione) is not associated with a reduced risk of lung cancer or lung cancer mortality (85474).
• Multiple sclerosis (MS). It is unclear if topical vitamin K reduces cutaneous adverse effects of MS treatment. Details: In patients with relapsing-remitting MS, burning and pain can accompany subcutaneous interferon treatment. Preliminary clinical research shows that topical application of vitamin K cream (dose not specified) for 8 weeks reduces burning by approximately 8% and pain by 9% when compared with no prophylactic treatment. Redness of the skin is also reduced with vitamin K (91453).
• Overall mortality. It is unclear if dietary intake of vitamin K reduces overall mortality. Details: Observational research in healthy older adults has found that serum vitamin K levels 0.5 nmol/L or less, which corresponds to consuming about 50% of the recommended vitamin K adequate intake, is associated with a 19% higher risk of overall mortality when compared with higher serum levels of vitamin K (103922). In a Danish cohort of adults with a median age of 56 years at baseline, the comparative risk for all-cause mortality between the highest and lowest quintiles of K1 intake over a period of 17-23 years was 0.76. The risk for cardiovascular mortality was 0.72, and the risk of cancer-related mortality in smokers or former smokers, specifically, was 0.8. However, the correlation tapered off above a daily intake of 100 mcg (109911).
• Pancreatic cancer. It is unclear if dietary intake of vitamin K reduces the risk of pancreatic cancer. Details: Observational research in over 100,000 Americans aged 55-74 years at baseline has found no association between dietary vitamin K2 intake and pancreatic cancer incidence over an average follow-up of 9 years. However, the hazard ratio for development of pancreatic cancer was 0.57 for the highest quintile of dietary vitamin K1 intake when compared with the lowest quintile (109912).
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). It is unclear if vitamin K improves PCOS symptoms. Details: Small clinical study in patients with PCOS show that taking vitamin K2 (menaquinone-7) 90 mcg daily for 8 weeks does not reduce fasting blood glucose, acne, hirsutism, or weight, although it improves depression and seems to reduce fasting insulin, when compared with placebo (105036,109918).
• Prostate cancer. It is unclear if dietary intake of vitamin K reduces the risk of prostate cancer. Details: Population research has found that higher dietary intake of vitamin K2 (menaquinone), but not vitamin K1 (phytonadione), is associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer, particularly advanced prostate cancer (85443,85474).
• Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). It is unclear if oral vitamin K improves RA symptoms. Details: One small clinical study in patients with RA shows that adding the MK-7 form of vitamin K2 (menaquinone) 100 mcg daily to treatment with conventional antirheumatic agents for 3 months improves disease activity and inflammatory markers when compared with antirheumatic agents alone. When compared to the control group, vitamin K2 reduced disease activity scores by 41% (91449). However, another small clinical study in patients with mild to moderate RA shows that taking vitamin K1 (phytonadione) 10 mg daily for 8 weeks with conventional antirheumatic agents does not improve disease activity or inflammatory markers when compared with placebo (100182). These contrasting outcomes may be related to the type of vitamin K used, the duration of treatment, and the severity of the illness.
• Rosacea. Although there is interest in using topical vitamin K1 for rosacea, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of vitamin K for this condition.
• Stroke. It is unclear if dietary intake of vitamin K1 reduces the risk of stroke. Details: Population research has found that higher dietary intake of vitamin K1 is not associated with a reduced risk of stroke (85482).
• Wound healing. Although there is interest in using topical vitamin K1 for wound healing, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of vitamin K for this condition. More evidence is needed to rate vitamin K for these uses.

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LIKELY SAFE ...when vitamin K1 (phytonadione) or vitamin K2 (menaquinone) is used orally and appropriately. Vitamin K1 up to 10 mg daily and vitamin K2 up to 45 mg daily have been safely used in clinical trials lasting up to 2 years. A tolerable upper intake level for vitamin K in adults has not been set (54,55,58,6799,7135,14364). ...when vitamin K1 (phytonadione) is used parenterally and appropriately. Vitamin K1 (phytonadione) in oral and injectable form is an FDA-approved drug (7135).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when vitamin K1 (phytonadione) 0. 1% is used topically in a cream or ointment for up to 12 weeks (91455,103919).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when vitamin K1 (phytonadione) is used orally or parenterally and appropriately. Vitamin K1 (phytonadione) in oral and injectable form is FDA approved for use in children. A tolerable upper intake level for vitamin K in children has not been set (7135).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts that do not exceed the daily adequate intake level (AI). A tolerable upper intake level for vitamin K in pregnancy and lactation has not been set (7135).

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WARFARIN (Coumadin) Interaction Rating = Major Do not take this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Likely •  Level of Evidence = C Vitamin K can antagonize and reverse the therapeutic effects of warfarin.  Details Vitamin K antagonizes the effects of warfarin (15,23380,25507,25508,85425,85429). Excessive vitamin K intake, either from supplements or from changes in the diet, can reduce the anticoagulant effect of warfarin (15).

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General ...Orally, vitamin K is generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Diarrhea, nausea, and stomach upset.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Intravenously: There have been rare cases of anaphylaxis and hyperbilirubinemia (in infants).

Dermatologic ...Orally, intake of vitamin K2 (menaquinone) along with calcium and vitamin D3 can cause an increased incidence of skin and skin appendage lesions compared to taking calcium and vitamin D3 alone. However, the risk of this adverse event is low, with 0.5 incidences per 100 patient-years occurring for patients treated with vitamin K, calcium, and vitamin D3 and 0.1 incidences per 100 patient-years occurring for patients treated with calcium and vitamin D3 alone (85467).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, vitamin K can cause mild to moderate gastrointestinal side effects (91450,91451). The most common effects include nausea, abdominal pain, and diarrhea (91450,91451).

Hepatic ...Orally, vitamin K3 (menadione) has been linked to hepatotoxicity. Vitamin K3 is no longer used therapeutically in North America because it has been linked to hepatic toxicity and jaundice in animal research (7135).

Other ...Intravenously, vitamin K can cause reactions that resemble hypersensitivity or anaphylaxis (85389). These reactions are rare. It is unclear whether the adverse effect is caused by the drug or a component of the solution. There have been very rare cases of hyperbilirubinemia, particularly in premature neonates, following large doses of vitamin K (15).

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