Lutein plus Bilberry by Sundown Naturals

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Night vision. Most research suggests that oral bilberry does not improve night vision in healthy individuals. Details: There is contradictory evidence about the effectiveness of bilberry for improving night vision; however, much of the research is of poor quality. In general, the most rigorous research shows that bilberry is not effective for improving night vision in healthy individuals (8139,9739,14280,35446). Whether bilberry can improve night vision in patients with night blindness is unclear.

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Age-related cognitive decline. Oral bilberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study of elderly Norwegian males with subjective cognitive impairment shows that drinking 330 mL of bilberry and red grape juice twice daily for 9 weeks does not improve measures of memory or motor skills when compared with placebo (110641).
• Age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Although there has been interest in using oral bilberry for AMD, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of bilberry for this purpose.
• Asthenopia (eye strain). Small clinical studies suggest that oral bilberry fruit extract may improve objective measures of asthenopia, but it is unclear if oral bilberry improves subjective symptoms of asthenopia. Details: Two small clinical studies in adults who report general eye strain or those who look at computer or other display screens at work for long periods of time show that taking bilberry-derived anthocyanins 43.2 mg daily for 6 weeks or bilberry extract 240 mg daily for 12 weeks improves objective measures of eye strain after staring at computer screens when compared with placebo (103190,104195). However, bilberry extract did not improve subjective measures of eye strain in the study that evaluated these outcomes (104195). This study may have been underpowered to detect significant differences between groups. Bilberry has also been evaluated in combination with other ingredients for improving eye strain. A small clinical trial in patients with eye strain shows that a combination of fish oil, lutein, and bilberry extract containing bilberry anthocyanidins 59 mg, taken daily for 4 weeks, reduces dry eye, lower back pain, shoulder stiffness, and stuffy head when compared with placebo (35470). It is unclear if these effects are due to bilberry, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Atherosclerosis. Although there has been interest in using oral bilberry for atherosclerosis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of bilberry for this purpose.
• Cataracts. Although there has been interest in using oral bilberry for cataracts, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of bilberry for this purpose.
• Chronic venous insufficiency (CVI). It is unclear if oral bilberry is beneficial in patients with CVI. Details: One small clinical study in patients with CVI shows that taking bilberry extract containing anthocyanins 173 mg daily for 30 days reduces symptoms of CVI when compared with placebo (35510).
• Diabetes. It is unclear if oral bilberry is beneficial in patients with diabetes. Details: One small clinical trial in patients with type 2 diabetes shows that taking a specific extract of bilberry fruit (Mirtoselect, Indena S.p.A) 470 mg once, prior to taking an oral glucose tolerance test, lowers plasma glucose levels when compared with placebo (91507). However, a small crossover trial in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes shows that taking bilberry fruit extract 700 mg twice daily for 4 weeks does not improve glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), body weight, blood pressure, or lipid levels when compared with placebo (104194). The validity of the HbA1c-related findings is limited due to the short study duration.
• Diabetic retinopathy. It is unclear if oral bilberry is beneficial in patients with diabetic retinopathy. Details: One small clinical trial in adults with diabetic and hypertensive retinopathy shows that taking bilberry fruit extract 160 mg daily for 6 months, in addition to standard management, improves edema and measures of retinal circulatory health when compared with standard management alone. Bilberry in the form of a generic, commercially available product appears to produce less dramatic improvements than a branded formulation (Mirtoselect, Indena S.p.A.) containing matching anthocyanin content. This specific product also reduced flow velocity in those with high-flow, diabetic retinopathy when compared with either the generic bilberry extract or standard management alone (97032).
• Dry eye. Oral bilberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with severe dry eye symptoms suggests that taking bilberry extract 600 mg and docosahexaenoic fish oil 240 mg once daily for 3 months may modestly improve measures of tear quality and patient-reported scores for dry eye symptoms when compared with control (112415). However, the validity of these results is limited by the lack of a statistical comparison between groups. Additionally, it is unclear if these effects are due to bilberry, fish oil, or the combination.
• Dysmenorrhea. It is unclear if oral bilberry is beneficial in patients with dysmenorrhea. Details: One small clinical study in patients with dysmenorrhea shows that a specific bilberry product (Tegens) containing bilberry anthocyanoside 160 mg, taken twice daily beginning 3 days prior to menses and continuing for 8 days, reduces pelvic pain, lumbosacral pain, breast pain, nausea, vomiting, and headache when compared with placebo (35512).
• Exercise-induced muscle soreness. It is unclear if oral bilberry is beneficial for reducing exercise-induced muscle soreness. Details: A small clinical study in trained athletes shows that drinking 200 mL of bilberry juice, containing about 744 mg phenols and 80 mg anthocyanins, twice daily for 5 days prior to running a half-marathon modestly worsens muscle soreness immediately after the run when compared with placebo. There was no longer a difference in muscle soreness between groups within 1-2 days after the run (99540).
• Glaucoma. Small clinical studies suggest that oral bilberry fruit extract, when taken with maritime pine extract, may lower intraocular pressure in patients with glaucoma. It is unclear if oral bilberry alone is beneficial in patients with glaucoma. Details: One small, uncontrolled clinical trial in Japanese patients with open-angle glaucoma shows that taking a specific product (Sante Glagenox, Saten Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd.) containing bilberry fruit extract 90 mg and maritime pine extract 40 mg daily for 4 weeks reduces intraocular pressure by 8.7% when compared to baseline (104192). Another small clinical study in patients with high intraocular pressure shows that taking a specific product (Mirtogenol) containing bilberry fruit extract (Mirtoselect, Indena S.p.A.) 80 mg and maritime pine extract (Pycnogenol, Horphag Research) 40 mg twice daily for 6 months lowers intraocular pressure and improves intraocular blood flow when compared with no treatment (35456). It is unclear if these findings are due to bilberry, maritime pine, or the combination. A retrospective chart review of patients with normal tension glaucoma has found that taking bilberry anthocyanin 60 mg twice daily for at least 12 months is associated with improvements in visual function when compared to pretreatment (35472).
• Hemorrhoids. Although there has been interest in using oral bilberry for hemorrhoids, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of bilberry for this purpose.
• Hyperlipidemia. It is unclear if oral bilberry is beneficial in patients with hyperlipidemia. Details: A small clinical study in adults with hyperlipidemia shows that taking bilberry-derived anthocyanins 320 mg daily for 4 weeks does not improve total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, or triglyceride levels. Further, no improvements in other biomarkers of cardiovascular disease were reported (110640). The validity of this study is limited by its short duration.
• Hypertension. Oral bilberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: One small clinical study in adults with hypertension shows that consuming 500 mL of a juice containing bilberry, red grape, and chokeberry, with or without black currant (MANA Blue, TINE SA), daily for 12 weeks does not improve blood pressure when compared with placebo (92371).
• Hypertensive retinopathy. It is unclear if oral bilberry is beneficial in patients with hypertensive retinopathy. Details: One small clinical trial in adults with diabetic and hypertensive retinopathy shows that taking bilberry fruit extract 160 mg daily for 6 months, in addition to standard management, improves edema and measures of retinal circulatory health when compared with standard management alone. Bilberry in the form of a generic, commercially available product appears to produce less dramatic improvements than a branded formulation (Mirtoselect, Indena S.p.A.) containing matching anthocyanin content. This specific product also increased flow velocity for those with ischemic, hypertensive retinopathy when compared with either the generic bilberry extract or standard management alone (97032).
• Impaired glucose tolerance (prediabetes). Oral bilberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in adults with impaired glucose tolerance and two markers of metabolic syndrome shows that consuming a diet high in whole grain products, fatty fish, and bilberries three times daily for 12 weeks reduces levels of plasma glucose when compared to baseline (35468). However, it is unclear if these findings are due to bilberry, another component of the diet, or the combination.
• Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Oral bilberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: One small clinical trial in adults with IBS shows that consuming a formula containing powdered bilberry fruit, aerial agrimony parts, cinnamon quills, and slippery elm bark modestly improves bowel movement frequency and reduces symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, flatulence, and straining when compared to baseline (35462). It is unclear if these findings are due to bilberry, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Metabolic syndrome. It is unclear if oral bilberry is beneficial in patients with metabolic syndrome. Details: One small clinical study in patients with metabolic syndrome shows that consuming a diet containing 400 grams of fresh bilberries daily does not affect body weight, glucose metabolism, or lipid metabolism when compared with a control diet (35473).
• Myopia. It is unclear if oral bilberry is beneficial in patients with myopia. Details: One small clinical trial in adults with myopia shows that a specific fermented bilberry fruit extract (Fermented Blueberry, Ajinomoto, Co., Inc.) 200 mg, taken twice daily for 4 weeks, improves night vision as well as the eye's ability to adjust focus when compared with placebo. The amplitude of accommodation was also significantly increased from 4.62 to 5.33 (91505).
• Obesity. It is unclear if oral bilberry is beneficial in patients with obesity. Details: One small clinical study in obese and overweight females shows that consuming 100 grams of frozen, whole bilberries daily for 33-35 days decreases weight and waist circumference when compared to baseline (35463). The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Osteoarthritis. Although there has been interest in using oral bilberry for osteoarthritis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of bilberry for this purpose.
• Ulcerative colitis. It is unclear if oral bilberry is beneficial in patients with ulcerative colitis. Details: One small, open-label clinical study in adults with mild-to-moderate ulcerative colitis shows that consuming sieved bilberries and concentrated bilberry juice (Symrise GmbH & Co) 160 grams daily for 6 weeks induces remission in 46% of patients. Furthermore, 91% of patients achieved remission at the end of treatment, and 72% of patients achieved remission at the end of the study (91506). The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Urinary tract infections (UTIs). Although there has been interest in using oral bilberry for UTIs, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of bilberry for this purpose.
• Varicose veins. Although there has been interest in using oral bilberry for varicose veins, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of bilberry for this purpose. More evidence is needed to rate bilberry for these uses.

(Read more about BILBERRY)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Age-related macular degeneration (AMD). When used alone or in combination with other ingredients, oral lutein seems to improve some aspects of vision in patient with AMD. However, it does not seem to slow the progression of AMD. Details: Epidemiological research has found that people who consume higher amounts of lutein plus zeaxanthin in the diet have a reduced risk of developing AMD (219,2394,60238,106353). The association between intake of lutein specifically and the development of AMD is not clear; however, dietary lutein levels are much higher than dietary zeaxanthin levels. Although one study found no association between increased dietary lutein consumption and a reduced risk for age-related maculopathy, people in this study already had high lutein intake at baseline (14007). Some research has assessed whether lutein supplements can reduce symptoms and progression of existing AMD. Clinical research, including pooled analyses, in adults with AMD shows that taking supplemental lutein 10-20 mg daily for up to 36 months modestly improves some aspects of vision, such as macular pigment optical density, the ability of the eyes to adapt to varying light conditions (glare recovery), the ability to see details of near objects (near vision acuity), and the ability to see under low-contrast conditions (contrast sensitivity) (11798,48213,60185,60242,60245,60268,60270,60280,90678,91160)(91165,97225,102887,106366). Meta-analyses of these and other studies shows that taking lutein or a related xanthophyll carotenoid (zeaxanthin or meso-zeaxanthin) improves macular optical density when compared with placebo in patients with or without AMD. Treatment duration of at least 3 months, doses greater than 5 mg, and/or combination treatment with all three carotenoids are associated with a greater improvement in macular optical density (97225,106366). However, lutein supplements do not appear to affect the progression of AMD (60281). A meta-analysis of 6 studies shows that taking lutein supplements for 0.5-5 years does not reduce the risk of visual loss or progression to late-stage AMD when compared with placebo (95839). Lutein has also been evaluated in combination with other ingredients, with conflicting findings. Although not all research agrees, lutein-containing combination supplements might improve some symptoms of AMD (19196,60134,60180,60207,60237,60244,97226). A specific supplement (AZYR SIFI) containing lutein 10 mg, vitamin C 180 mg, vitamin E 30 mg, zinc 22.5 mg, copper 1 mg, zeaxanthin 1 mg, and astaxanthin 4 mg has been used daily for 1-2 years in some research with moderate evidence of benefit (19196,60244). Taking lutein 10 mg plus zeaxanthin 2 mg in addition to the original Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) formulation (vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc) does not seem to prevent the progression to advanced AMD more than the AREDS formulation alone. However, this progression was modestly inhibited in individuals with low dietary intakes of lutein and zeaxanthin. While progression to late AMD was only modestly inhibited at 5 years when these doses of lutein and zeaxanthin were included in a revised formulation devoid of beta-carotene (AREDS2) (60281), results of an additional 5 years of follow up showed that this revised formulation reduces the risk of progression to late AMD by 15% when compared with the formulation containing beta-carotene (108615). In first-generation offspring of parents with neovascular AMD, taking lutein 10 mg, zeaxanthin 2 mg, vitamin C 180 mg, vitamin E 30 mg, zinc 15 mg, and copper 1 mg daily for 6 months does not improve the macular pigment optical density (106347). Reasons for these discrepancies are not clear but may relate to lutein dose, dietary lutein intake, treatment duration, or the other ingredients included in the combination products.
• Cataracts. Increased dietary lutein seems to reduce the odds of developing cataracts. It is unclear if oral lutein supplementation is beneficial in those who already have cataracts. Details: Observational research and a meta-analysis of this evidence suggests that higher blood levels and/or higher dietary intake of lutein are associated with a 25% lower odds of developing age-related cataracts, and more specifically, a 25% to 27% decreased risk of developing nuclear cataracts (90944,91161,91162,112095). Population research has also found that people who consume higher amounts of lutein (6.9-11.7 mg daily) as part of their diet have a reduced risk of developing severe cataracts that require surgical removal (2395,3219,3220). Clinical research shows that taking lutein 10 mg and zeaxanthin 2 mg per day orally for an average of 4.7 years decreases the risk of needing cataract surgery by 32% in patients with low dietary intake of lutein and zeaxanthin; however, it doesn't benefit patients with higher dietary intake of lutein and zeaxanthin (94703). Some evidence shows that supplemental lutein might benefit patients who already have cataracts. Preliminary clinical research in adults with grade 2 or 3 senile cataracts shows that taking lutein 15 mg orally three times weekly for up to 2 years can improve the ability to see clearly when compared to baseline (60133).

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Oral lutein does not seem to prevent bronchopulmonary dysplasia in preterm and low birth weight infants. Details: Clinical research shows that giving preterm and low birth weight infants a specific product (LUTEINofta, SOOFT Italia SpA) containing lutein 0.14 mg and zeaxanthin 0.0006 mg orally once daily, starting at birth and continuing until 36 weeks corrected gestational age, does not decrease the incidence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia when compared with placebo (91163).
• Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). Oral lutein does not seem to prevent NEC in preterm and low birth weight infants. Details: Clinical research shows that giving preterm and low birth weight infants a specific product (LUTEINofta, SOOFT Italia SpA) containing lutein 0.14 mg and zeaxanthin 0.0006 mg orally once daily, starting at birth and continuing until 36 weeks corrected gestational age, does not decrease the incidence of NEC when compared with placebo (91163).
• Retinitis pigmentosa. Oral lutein does not seem to improve vision or slow down retinal degeneration in patients with this condition. Details: While some preliminary clinical evidence suggests that oral lutein might be helpful in the treatment of retinitis pigmentosa (10279), most clinical research shows that taking lutein does not improve vision or other markers of retinal degeneration in patients with retinitis pigmentosa (60117,60165,60225).
• Retinopathy of prematurity. Oral lutein does not seem to prevent retinopathy of prematurity in preterm and low birth weight infants. Details: Clinical research in preterm and low birth weight infants shows that giving 0.5 mL or 1.8 mL/kg of a specific product (LUTEINofta, SOOFT Italia SpA) providing lutein 0.14 mg, or giving 0.5 mg/kg plus zeaxanthin 0.0006 mg or 0.02 mg/kg orally once daily, starting at birth and continuing until 36-40 weeks corrected gestational age, does not decrease the incidence or severity of retinopathy of prematurity when compared with placebo (60240,60243,91163,102889).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Age-related cognitive decline. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for attenuating cognitive decline in older adults. Details: Clinical research in adults 40-75 years old shows that taking lutein 10 mg with zeaxanthin 2 mg daily for 6 months improves some, but not all, measures of visual memory when compared with placebo. However, other measures of memory and cognitive function were not improved (109763). Preliminary clinical research in older adults shows that taking the same dose of lutein and zeaxanthin for one year modestly improves some measures of cognitive function, such as complex attention and cognitive flexibility, when compared with placebo (106367). Other preliminary clinical research in older females shows that taking lutein 12 mg alone or with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 800 mg daily for 4 months can improve verbal fluency and memory scores when compared to baseline (48216). Also, some observational research in patients 50 years and older has found that higher dietary lutein and zeaxanthin intake is associated with greater word recall when compared with lower intake (102891). However, clinical research in patients over 60 years old shows that taking lutein 10 mg with zeaxanthin 2 mg daily for 5 years in addition to vitamins C and E, beta-carotene, and zinc (AREDS) does not improve markers of cognitive function, such as memory and verbal fluency, when compared with AREDS alone (94702). More research is needed to determine whether lutein is beneficial for specific measures of cognitive function in older adults.
• Alzheimer disease. Oral lutein has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease shows that taking lutein 10 mg, zeaxanthin 2 mg, meso-zeaxanthin 10 mg, fish oil 1 gram (providing docosahexaenoic acid 500 mg and eicosapentaenoic acid 150 mg), and vitamin E 15 mg (Memory Health) daily for 12 months does not affect disease severity when compared with placebo. However, there were modest increases the number of patients experiencing either an improvement or an attenuated decline in memory and mood (109764). The effect of lutein alone is unclear.
• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, Lou Gehrig's disease). It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for ALS prevention. Details: Population research has found that higher dietary intake of lutein is associated with a 21% lower risk of developing ALS when compared with lower dietary intake (90412). It is unknown if supplemental lutein has any effect on the risk of developing ALS.
• Asthenopia (eye strain). It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for eye strain. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that some combination lutein supplements might reduce symptoms of eye strain. Results from one clinical trial show that taking a combination product containing lutein, zeaxanthin, and black currant extract daily for 2 weeks improves visual fatigue and eye stress when compared with placebo in patients completing a two-hour visual proof reading task (60214). Other clinical research shows that taking lutein 17.5 mg plus omega-3 fatty acids (standardized to contain docosahexaenoic acid 783 mg and eicosapentaenoic acid 162 mg) and bilberry extract (standardized to contain anthocyanidin 59 mg) daily for 4 weeks reduces symptoms of eye strain when compared with placebo (35470). The effect of lutein alone on eye strain is unclear.
• Asthma. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for asthma prevention. Details: Population research has found that a higher dietary intake of lutein plus zeaxanthin is associated with up to 30% lower odds of having asthma when compared with a lower dietary intake (109765). The effects of lutein intake alone or lutein supplementation are unclear.
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). Eating more lutein in the diet seems to reduce the risk of CVD. However, taking oral lutein supplements does not seem to prevent CVD events or mortality. Details: One observational study has found that increased intake of dietary lutein is marginally associated with a reduced risk of developing coronary heart disease (14108). A meta-analysis including this and other studies shows that high dietary lutein intake or high lutein serum concentrations are associated with a 12% reduction in the incidence of coronary heart disease, an 18% reduction in stroke, and a 25% reduction in the incidence of metabolic syndrome when compared with low lutein intake or serum concentrations (97227). However, clinical research shows that taking lutein 10 mg plus zeaxanthin 2 mg daily for an average of 4.8 years does not decrease the risk of CVD-related mortality or cardiovascular events such as stroke, myocardial infarction, or angina when compared with no supplementation in patients 50-85 years old (94701). Unlike the analysis above, individual cardiovascular outcomes were not separately evaluated in this study. The effect of lutein on CVD in younger patients or in doses greater than 10 mg is unknown.
• Central serous retinopathy. Oral lutein has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking a supplement containing lutein 15 mg, vitamin C 288 mg, vitamin E 150 IU, zinc 9 mg, and copper 1.2 mg (Sante Lutax 15, Santen Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd) three times daily after meals for 6 months has no effect on mean best-corrected visual acuity, serous retinal detachment, or subfoveal fluid remission when compared with placebo in patients with central serous retinopathy (97224).
• Cervical cancer. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for cervical cancer prevention. Details: Epidemiological research has found that low dietary intake of lutein is not associated with an increased risk for developing cervical cancer (60297).
• Child development. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for child development. Details: Epidemiological research has found that a higher dietary intake of lutein in the first and second trimesters of pregnancy is associated with increased verbal intelligence and improved behavior in the child at 6-10 years of age. However, the ability to discriminate between a novel or familiar visual stimulus was reduced at about 6 months of age, and there were no effects on most cognitive outcomes in children aged 3-6 years (107106). Other epidemiological research has found that a higher dietary intake of lutein plus zeaxanthin in children aged 3-6 years may be associated with modestly improved executive function at 6-10 years. However, there were no effects on most cognitive outcomes in children aged 3-6 years or 6-10 years (109761).
• Choroideremia. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for improving vision. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking lutein 20 mg daily for 6 months does not improve vision in patients with choroideremia (60124).
• Cognitive function. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for improving cognitive function. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that increased dietary lutein does not improve cognitive function measures, such as attention, executive function, or memory, when compared with placebo or an isocaloric meal (107082). However, the dietary source of lutein used in the included studies was heterogeneous and any conclusions remain unclear. Doses of lutein ranged from 8-12 mg daily, alone or in combination with daily zeaxanthin 2-26 mg and/or meso-zeaxanthin 10 mg and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 800 mg (107082). However, some preliminary clinical research in younger adults shows that taking lutein 10 mg and zeaxanthin 2 mg for one year modestly improves some measures of cognitive function, such as spatial memory, when compared with placebo (106348). Also, observational research has found that intake of choline and lutein plus zeaxanthin is positively associated with cognitive flexibility task performance speed. However, this association is not present with the intake of lutein plus zeaxanthin in the absence of choline (106354). Reasons for these discrepancies are not clear but may relate to lutein dose, treatment duration, or the addition of other nutrients to the diet or supplements.
• Colorectal cancer. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for colorectal cancer prevention. Details: Some epidemiological research has found that higher dietary intake of lutein is associated with a reduced risk of developing colon cancer (3962). However, most epidemiological research has found that higher dietary intake of lutein is not associated with a reduced risk of colorectal cancer (34481,106372). It is not known if supplemental lutein has any effect on colorectal cancer risk.
• Depression. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for depression. Details: A cross-sectional study in 8655 adults with cardiometabolic disease including diabetes, hypertension, coronary heart disease, heart failure, and stroke suggests that higher dietary lutein and zeaxanthin intake is associated with a 31% reduced risk of depression when compared with lower dietary intake. The study also found that adults with depression had lower dietary lutein and zeaxanthin intake than those without depression. Additionally, the study found a nonlinear U-shaped relationship between total dietary carotenoid intake and the risk of depression among patients with cardiometabolic disease, where the risk of depression decreased with increasing total dietary carotenoid intake up until an inflection point where the risk of depression increased with increasing total dietary carotenoid intake (112098). Further research is needed to establish causality.
• Diabetes. Observational research suggests that oral lutein may not be beneficial for the prevention of diabetes or diabetic complications. Details: Some epidemiological research has found that low serum levels of carotenoids, including lutein, are associated with impaired glucose tolerance. This may indicate that taking carotenoids such as lutein might reduce the risk of diabetes development (60161). However, population research has found that increasing intake of dietary lutein plus zeaxanthin does not decrease the risk of developing type 2 diabetes (14004,97227). Other epidemiological research in patients with type 2 diabetes has found that an increased serum concentration of lutein is not associated with reduced cardiovascular mortality over 14 years (109768).
• Diabetic retinopathy. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial in diabetic retinopathy. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking lutein 10 mg daily for 36 weeks has no effect on visual acuity or glare sensitivity in patients with non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy (97223). Observational research in a small group of patients with non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy has also found that taking lutein 4 mg with zeaxanthin 0.5 mg daily for 4 months does not improve visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, or glare sensitivity when compared with zeaxanthin alone (100986).
• Esophageal cancer. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for esophageal cancer prevention. Details: Population research has found that people who consume higher amounts of lutein and zeaxanthin in their diet have a 29% lower risk of developing esophageal squamous cell cancer when compared with those with lower intake (91159). It is unknown if supplemental lutein has any effect on esophageal cancer risk.
• Exercise-induced muscle soreness. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial in relieving muscle soreness due to exercise. Details: Some clinical research shows that taking a specific lutein-containing combination product (BioAstin, Cyanotech Corp.) containing haematococcus algae extract with astaxanthin 4 mg and lutein 480 mg daily for 3 weeks prior to exercise does not significantly reduce post-exercise muscle soreness when compared with placebo (19199). The effect of lutein alone is unclear.
• Fractures. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for fracture prevention. Details: A meta-analysis of observational research has found that increased dietary intake of lutein and/or zeaxanthin is not associated with a reduced risk of hip fractures (97228).
• Gastric cancer. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for gastric cancer prevention. Details: A meta-analysis of observational research has found that increased dietary intake of lutein and/or zeaxanthin is not associated with a reduced risk of developing gastric cancer (97231).
• Glaucoma. Oral lutein has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with open-angle glaucoma shows that taking oral lutein 10 mg, zeaxanthin 2 mg, and meso-zeaxanthin 10 mg daily for 18 months increases macular pigment density, but does not affect visual function, when compared with placebo (109756).
• Hyperlipidemia. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for hyperlipidemia. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that supplementation with lutein does not reduce the levels of total, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol when compared with placebo (109757). Most publications included in this analysis evaluated lutein alone in healthy adults or in patients with age-related macular degeneration, two studies combined lutein with another ingredient, and one study evaluated zeaxanthin alone. The effect of lutein in patients with existing hyperlipidemia is unclear.
• Infertility. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for infertility. Details: An observational study suggests that there is no association between dietary lutein intake and in-vitro fertilization (IVF) outcomes including good oocyte quality, embryo transfer success rates, clinical pregnancy rates, and successful term pregnancy rates in subfertile couples who are candidates for IVF (112097).
• Lung cancer. Research is conflicting whether oral lutein is beneficial for lung cancer prevention. Details: Epidemiological research has found that low serum levels of carotenoids, including lutein, are associated with an increased risk of lung cancer (12874). However, other epidemiological research has found that higher serum levels or higher dietary intake of lutein are not associated with a reduced risk of developing or dying from lung cancer (39690,60090,60160). Another large epidemiological cancer screening trial with a mean follow-up of over 12 years suggests that dietary intake of lutein and zeaxanthin is protective against lung cancer as shown by a non-linear dose response curve, where lower doses of lutein and zeaxanthin are associated with a sharp decrease in the incidence of lung cancer, followed by a more gradual decrease in incidence at higher doses (112096).
• Macular telangiectasia type 2. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for macular telangiectasia type 2. Details: In patients with macular telangiectasia type 2, observational research has found that taking a specific combination of lutein 10 mg, meso-zeaxanthin 10 mg, and zeaxanthin 2 mg (MacuShield; Alliance Pharmaceuticals) for at least 6 months, with an average duration of 15.7 months, was associated with a stabilization of visual acuity. Also, the number and size of cavitations in the macula were reduced (106355).
• Metabolic syndrome. Oral lutein has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A meta-analysis of observational research shows that high dietary lutein intake or high lutein serum concentrations are associated with a 25% reduction in the incidence of metabolic syndrome when compared with low lutein intake or serum concentrations (97227). Additional population research in females shows that the highest dietary intake of lutein plus zeaxanthin is associated with 54% reduced odds of developing metabolic syndrome when compared with the lowest intake. However, when supplements containing lutein plus zeaxanthin were included in the total intake, there was no association with metabolic syndrome (109760).
• Myopia. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for myopia. Details: A very small clinical study in adults aged 20-50 years with high myopia shows that taking lutein 20 mg daily for 6 months does not improve macular pigment optical density, visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, or electroretinogram measurements when compared with placebo (112099). The validity of these findings is limited by the very small sample size and short study duration.
• Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for Non-Hodgkin lymphoma prevention. Details: A meta-analysis of observational population research has found that increased intake of lutein/zeaxanthin in the diet is associated with an 18% lower risk of developing non-Hodgkin lymphoma when compared with low dietary intake. However, no dose-response relationship was reported (97229). It is unknown if supplemental lutein has any effect on non-Hodgkin lymphoma risk.
• Obesity. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for obesity. Details: A small clinical trial in obese middle-aged individuals shows that taking lutein 20 mg daily in addition to following a low-calorie diet for 10 weeks does not affect most anthropometric or cardiometabolic indices when compared with a low-calorie diet alone. However, there was a small beneficial effect on body fat and total cholesterol levels (107107).
• Pancreatic cancer. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for pancreatic cancer prevention. Details: A meta-analysis of population research has found that increased dietary intake of lutein and/or zeaxanthin is not associated with a reduced risk of pancreatic cancer (97230). The effects of supplemental lutein are unclear.
• Parkinson disease. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for Parkinson disease prevention. Details: Population research has found that higher dietary intake of lutein is not associated with the risk of developing Parkinson disease (91164). The effects of supplemental lutein are unclear.
• Pre-eclampsia. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for pre-eclampsia prevention. Details: Some epidemiological research has found that high plasma concentrations of lutein are associated with a decreased risk of pre-eclampsia (60142). Other epidemiological research has found that the highest dietary intake of lutein plus zeaxanthin during pregnancy is associated with 68% reduced odds of having pre-eclampsia when compared with the lowest intake (109762). The effects of lutein supplements are unclear.
• Respiratory tract infections. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial in respiratory tract infection prevention or treatment. Details: Epidemiological research has found that high serum levels of lutein are not associated with a decreased incidence or severity of respiratory tract infections in the elderly (60152). The effects of supplemental lutein are unclear.
• Ulcerative colitis. It is unclear if oral lutein is beneficial for ulcerative colitis. Details: In patients in the remission phase of ulcerative colitis, observational research has found that a higher dietary intake of lutein plus zeaxanthin is associated with a reduced incidence of constipation, but not flatulence or feelings of urgency (tenesmus) (106362). The effects of supplemental lutein are unclear.
• Visual development. It is unclear if taking oral lutein during pregnancy can improve the visual acuity of the child. Details: Some observational research has found that higher maternal lutein levels are associated with a 22% to 40% lower risk of poor visual acuity in children at 3 years of age when compared with lower maternal lutein levels (102888). However, other epidemiological research has found that dietary intake of lutein plus zeaxanthin during the first or third trimesters of pregnancy is not associated with contrast vision or visual acuity in the child at 11-12 years of age (109759). The effects of lutein supplements are unclear. More evidence is needed to rate lutein for these uses.

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LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in amounts commonly found in foods. Bilberry has Generally Recognized As Safe status (GRAS) for use in foods in the US (4912).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately for medicinal purposes. Bilberry fruit extracts have been used with apparent safety in clinical trials at a dose of up to 160 mg daily for up to 6 months (39,40,8139,9739,14280,35472,35510,35512,103190,104192,104195). A higher bilberry extract dose of 1.4 grams daily has been used with apparent safety for up to 4 weeks (104194). Whole bilberries or bilberry juice have also been consumed with apparent safety in quantities of 100-160 grams daily for up to 35 days (35463,91506).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when the leaves are used orally in high doses or for a prolonged period. Death can occur with chronic use of 1.5 gram/kg daily (2).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in the amounts commonly found in foods. However, there is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of bilberry when used in medicinal amounts during pregnancy and lactation; avoid using.

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LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Consuming up to 20 mg of lutein daily from both dietary and supplemental sources appears to be safe (3219,3220,60167). Lutein supplements have been safely used in clinical trials at doses of up to 20 mg daily for up to 10 years (11798,60133,60177,94703,94701,100986,104570,107107,108615,109763).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately. A specific product containing lutein (LUTEINofta, SOOFT Italia SpA) has been used with apparent safety in infants at a dose of 0.14 mg daily for 36 weeks (91163).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately in amounts found in foods. The high end of dietary lutein intake ranges from 6.9-11.7 mg/day (3219,3220).

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ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, bilberry fruit extract might increase the risk of bleeding when taken with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.  Details In vitro, animal, and clinical research suggest that anthocyanidin extracts from bilberry can inhibit platelet aggregation (16631,35455,35503,35504,35505).

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, bilberry leaf or fruit extract may increase the risk of hypoglycemia when taken with antidiabetes drugs.  Details Animal research suggests that bilberry leaf extract might have blood glucose-lowering activity (1264). Also, one small clinical trial in patients with type 2 diabetes shows that taking bilberry fruit extract 470 mg as a single dose prior to an oral glucose tolerance test lowers plasma glucose levels when compared with placebo (91507).

CYTOCHROME P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, bilberry fruit extract might decrease levels of drugs metabolized by CYP2E1.  Details Animal research shows that exposure to small concentrations of bilberry extract in drinking water for around one month increased CYP2E1 activity by 31%. However, exposure over a 2-month period did not increase CYP2E1 activity (103191). This effect has not been reported in humans.

ERLOTINIB (Tarceva) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, bilberry fruit extract might reduce the efficacy of erlotinib.  Details In vitro research suggests that bilberry fruit extract and its constituents, delphinidin and delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, inhibit the activity of erlotinib (97031). This interaction has not been reported in humans.

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General ...Orally, bilberry fruit, juice, and extracts seem to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Dark-colored stools, flatulence, and gastrointestinal discomfort.

Gastrointestinal ...In one small clinical trial, mild-to-moderate flatulence was reported in 33% of patients taking sieved bilberries and concentrated bilberry juice (91506). However, the patients in this study had ulcerative colitis, and the study lacked a control group, limiting the validity of this finding. In another small clinical study of males with age-related cognitive impairment, temporary adverse gastrointestinal (GI) effects were reported in 13% of patients drinking a combination of bilberry and grape juice. However, the adverse GI effect rate was identical in patients drinking a placebo juice (110641). A post-marketing surveillance report of 2295 patients using bilberry extract (Tegens) found that 1% of patients complained of GI discomfort and less than 1% experienced nausea or heartburn (35500).
Theoretically, fresh bilberry fruit may have laxative effects. One clinical trial noted an increased frequency of bowel movements following the administration of a combination formulation containing aerial agrimony parts, cinnamon quills, powdered bilberry fruit, and slippery elm bark (35462). It is unclear if these effects were due to bilberry, other ingredients, or the combination.

Other ...Orally, bilberry may cause discoloration of feces and the tongue. In one study, a dark-bluish to black discoloration of both the feces and the tongue was observed following consumption of sieved bilberries and concentrated bilberry juice. In one patient, a slight discoloration of the teeth has also been observed (91506). In another study, 50% of patients reported dark green stools after taking bilberry extract 700 mg twice daily for 4 weeks (104194).

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General ...Orally, dietary and supplemental lutein is generally well tolerated. Doses up to 20 mg daily have not resulted in adverse effects.

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