Premium CLA 3-6-9 by GNC Total Lean Advanced

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Serving Size 2 Softgel(s)

Ingredients	Amount Per Serving
Calories	30 Calorie(s)
Total Fat	3 Gram(s)
CLA (Clarinol) (Conjugated Linoleic Acid isomers, from Safflower Oil) (CLA (Form: Conjugated Linoleic Acid isomers, from Safflower Oil) (Alt. Name: Clarinol) )	1.7 Gram(s)
Gamma-Linolenic Acid (18:3n-6, GLA) (Safflower Oil) (GLA (Form: from Safflower Oil) (Alt. Name: Gamma-Linolenic Acid) Note: Omega-6 )	150 mg
Oleic Acid ( C18:1n-9, OA) (Safflower Oil) (Oleic Acid (Form: from Safflower Oil) (Alt. Name: Omega-9) )	100 mg
Eicosapentaenoic Acid (C20:5n-3, EPA) (Fish Oil) (EPA (Form: from Fish Oil) (Alt. Name: Eicosapentaenoic Acid) Note: Omega-3 )	92 mg
Docosahexaenoic Acid ( C22:6n-3, DHA) (Fish Oil) (DHA (Form: from Fish Oil) (Alt. Name: Docosahexaenoic Acid) Note: Omega-3 )	58 mg
MCT (Medium Chain Triglycerides) (from Coconut Oil) (MCT (Form: from Coconut Oil) (Alt. Name: Medium Chain Triglycerides) )	50 mg

Other Ingredients

Gelatin, Glycerin, Rosemary extract, Mixed Tocopherols

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Effectiveness view details

Below is general information about the effectiveness of the known ingredients contained in the product Premium CLA 3-6-9. Some ingredients may not be listed. This information does NOT represent a recommendation for or a test of this specific product as a whole.

CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID (CLA) (CLA)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

Hypertension. Oral CLA seems to modestly reduce blood pressure when used along with ramipril. However, oral CLA alone does not seem to reduce blood pressure. Details: A meta-analysis of small clinical trials shows that taking CLA in doses of 1 gram to 10.8 grams daily does not lower systolic or diastolic blood pressure when compared with placebo or a control diet (111053). However, this analysis is limited by the heterogeneous populations in the individual studies. Only one study was specifically conducted in individuals with hypertension (45569). This small clinical trial in individuals with stage one uncontrolled hypertension shows that taking CLA 4.5 grams daily along with ramipril 37.5 mg daily for 8 weeks modestly reduces systolic and diastolic blood pressure when compared with ramipril alone (45569).
Obesity. In adults and children, oral CLA seems to decrease fat mass by a small amount, including abdominal fat mass. However, it is unclear if oral CLA is beneficial for weight loss, body mass index (BMI) reduction, or improvement of metabolic measures. Details: Taking CLA 3-6.8 grams daily seems to decrease body fat mass, increase lean body mass, and reduce waist and hip circumference in some patients (2819,3153,4947,13137,45295,45303,45685,45799,97003,105809). A meta-analysis of clinical research in adults with overweight or obesity also undergoing an exercise program shows a small effect on body fat reduction, but not body weight or plasma lipids (111056). Most research suggests that doses greater than 3.4 grams daily do not seem to offer any additional benefit when compared with lower doses (2819,2821,3153,4947,10410,11327,13137,45295,45799). Also, supplementing milk with CLA 3 grams daily seems to reduce total fat mass in individuals with overweight when compared with placebo (45331). CLA also seems to reduce hunger and improve satiety and feelings of fullness, but this appetite suppression does not necessarily result in a lower energy intake or improved body weight maintenance (11327). In children with overweight aged 6-10 years, taking CLA 3 grams daily for approximately 7 months seems to reduce body fat, abdominal fat, and peripheral fat percentages when compared with placebo (45713). There is inconsistent evidence regarding the effects of CLA on body weight and BMI, with most research suggesting that CLA does not reduce total body weight or BMI (2819,2821,3153,10410,13137,45007,45679,45790,97003,97006). Also, taking CLA in combination with omega-3 fatty acids or chromium picolinate does not seem to improve BMI and body weight in individuals with overweight or obesity (42627,45431). Although one meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking CLA 2.4-6 grams daily for 6-12 months increases weight loss by 0.7 kg and fat loss by 1.3 kg when compared with placebo, this effect is small and may not be clinically significant (91585). Also, taking CLA 3.4 grams daily for 1 year does not seem to prevent weight or body fat regain in individuals with overweight who previously lost some of their initial body weight (45083,45221). However, one study shows that taking CLA 8 grams daily for 16 weeks seems to reduce BMI in obese, postmenopausal adults with type 2 diabetes (45614). Some studies have evaluated the consumption of CLA-enriched fatty foods. In males with overweight, consuming butter enriched with CLA does not seem to have beneficial metabolic effects (45192). Also, in individuals with overweight or obesity, consuming a goat cheese naturally enriched in CLA and omega-3 fatty acids for 12 weeks does not seem to improve BMI, fat mass, or weight, or most metabolic measures, including fasting glucose, blood pressure, or inflammatory factors, when compared to a control goat cheese. However, there was an increase in total cholesterol, possibly related to an increase in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and reduced levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) (105808). There is evidence that the isolated trans-10,cis-12 isomer of CLA can increase hyperproinsulinemia and insulin resistance in patients with abdominal obesity (2821,13026,13137). Hyperproinsulinemia is an independent risk factor for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Therefore, CLA might not be a good choice for obese patients. However, most commercial CLA products contain a mixture of CLA isomers. It is not known if these mixed CLA isomer products carry this risk. One meta-analysis of clinical research shows that insulin resistance is modestly reduced when a CLA supplement is taken by adults undergoing an exercise program when compared with exercise alone (111056).

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

Common cold. Oral CLA does not seem to be beneficial for common cold prevention or treatment. Details: Some clinical research shows that taking CLA 2 grams daily does not reduce the risk of developing a cold or reduce cough or sore throat severity in individuals with a common cold when compared with placebo (45577).
Diabetes. Oral CLA does not seem to be beneficial for diabetes. Details: Some clinical research shows that taking CLA 6.4 grams daily for 16 weeks does not improve fasting glucose, postprandial glucose, or insulin in individuals with type 2 diabetes when compared with safflower oil (45614,45835).
Hyperlipidemia. Oral CLA does not seem to be beneficial for hyperlipidemia. Details: A meta-analysis and individual clinical trials show that taking CLA as supplements or fortified foods does not improve levels of cholesterol or triglycerides (45790,97006,111054). One meta-analysis of small clinical trials in heterogenous populations shows that taking CLA does not improve levels of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, or triglycerides, and modestly DECREASES levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, when compared with taking placebo or a control diet (111054). CLA has generally been taken in doses of 1.4 to 6.8 grams daily for up to 24 weeks (45790,97006,111054). However, research in patients with hyperlipidemia is limited. Most studies have included general populations of healthy adults, patient with type 2 diabetes, or populations with obesity.

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). It is unclear if oral CLA is beneficial for reducing symptoms of allergic rhinitis. Details: Clinical research shows that taking CLA 2 grams daily for 12 weeks improves overall well-being in patients with birch pollen allergy when compared with placebo, but does not improve eye or total allergy symptoms (45395).
Asthma. It is unclear if oral CLA is beneficial for reducing symptoms of asthma. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with mild asthma shows that taking CLA 4.5 grams daily for 12 weeks improves airway hypersensitivity and tolerance to strenuous exercise when compared with placebo, but without significantly reducing the need to use rescue bronchodilators or improving lung capacity (45787). In addition, a small clinical trial in children 6-18 years of age with allergic asthma shows that taking CLA 3 grams daily for 12 weeks does not reduce the use of emergency bronchodilators or improve peak expiratory flow, forced expiratory volume (FEV1), or vital lung capacity when compared with placebo (97005).
Atherosclerosis. Although there is interest in using oral CLA for preventing atherosclerosis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of CLA for this purpose.
Athletic performance. It is unclear if oral CLA is beneficial for improving athletic performance. Details: Some preliminary clinical research in student athletes shows that taking CLA powder (CLAce Powder, The Nisshin OilliO Group, Ltd.) 900 mg daily for 14 days increases time to exhaustion during exercise by an average of 179 seconds, but does not reduce rate of perceived exertion, when compared with placebo (97002). Other small clinical trials show that taking a specific product containing CLA oil (Clarinol A-80, Stepan Specialty Products, LLC) 5.63 grams daily for 6 weeks in combination with aerobic training does not improve muscle endurance, muscle power, peak oxygen uptake, or cardiorespiratory fatigue threshold when compared with placebo in untrained to moderately trained males (91587,91588).
Breast cancer. It is unclear if dietary CLA is beneficial for preventing breast cancer. Details: Some observational research has found that a higher intake of CLA in foods, particularly cheese, is linked with a lower risk of developing breast cancer in postmenopausal individuals (5058). However, other population research has found that intake of CLA is not associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer (45609). Furthermore, some epidemiological evidence has found that CLA intake might be weakly associated with an increased risk of breast cancer (45048).
Cognitive function. It is unclear if oral CLA is beneficial for improving cognitive function in older adults. Details: Preliminary clinical research in older adults shows that taking CLA 1.75 grams twice daily for 6 weeks may modestly improve verbal learning and recall in males, but not females, when compared with placebo (97008).
Colorectal cancer. It is unclear if dietary CLA is beneficial for preventing colorectal cancer. Details: Epidemiological research has found that high dietary intake of CLA might reduce the risk of colorectal cancer in females by up to 39% (13775). It is not known if taking CLA supplements is associated with a reduced risk of colorectal cancer.
Metabolic syndrome. It is unclear if oral CLA is beneficial for metabolic syndrome. Details: Evidence from a small clinical trial shows that taking CLA 3 grams daily orally for 90 days, along with a hypocaloric diet, decreases body fat mass by approximately 3% when compared to baseline in females with metabolic syndrome. However, this reduction does not appear to be significant when compared with placebo treatment, and CLA does not lower blood lipid levels or blood pressure (91586).
Muscle strength. It is unclear if oral CLA is beneficial for increasing muscle strength. Details: Some preliminary clinical research shows that adding CLA 6 grams to supplementation with creatine 9 grams and whey protein 36 grams daily for 12 weeks modestly enhances strength improvement and lean tissue mass when compared with placebo in adults participating in strength training (45596). However, other clinical research shows that taking CLA 5 grams daily for 7 weeks does not improve most measures of strength in adults participating in resistance training when compared with placebo, although bench press strength was modestly improved in males, and lean tissue mass and fat mass were also improved (45222). Other clinical research shows that taking CLA 6 grams daily for 4 weeks does not improve body composition or strength in resistance-trained athletes (45041). The reasons for these discrepancies are unclear, but may be related to the duration of treatment.
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It is unclear if oral CLA is beneficial for NAFLD. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking CLA (Nutrifit, Nutricentury) 1 gram three times daily in conjunction with a weight loss diet for 8 weeks reduces fat mass, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels and increases muscle mass when compared with a weight loss diet alone in obese adults with NAFLD. CLA was also associated with a reduction in glycated hemoglobin, but with no corresponding reduction in fasting plasma glucose (97004).
Physical performance. It is unclear if oral CLA is beneficial for improving physical performance in older adults. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults 65-85 years of age shows that taking CLA 1.75 grams twice daily for 6 weeks does not improve handgrip strength or hand discomfort when compared with placebo (97008).
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). It is unclear if oral CLA is beneficial for RA. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking CLA 2.5 grams daily with or without vitamin E 400 mg daily for 12 weeks reduces pain and morning stiffness and reduces erythrocyte sedimentation rate in patients with RA when compared to baseline (45730). The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a comparator group. More evidence is needed to rate conjugated linoleic acid for these uses.

DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID (DHA) (Docosahexaenoic Acid)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

Hyperlipidemia. Most research shows that taking oral DHA alone or with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) seems to modestly reduce triglyceride levels. However, DHA does not decrease total cholesterol and may increase levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. Details: Clinical research shows that taking DHA 1.25-4 grams daily for up to 7 weeks can reduce triglyceride levels by 17% to 24% in adult patients with mild hyperlipidemia, dyslipidemia, or hypertriglyceridemia (6143,48013,48338). Also, taking DHA-enriched fish oil providing DHA 810 mg plus EPA 210 mg daily for 8 weeks reduces triglyceride levels by 23% in premenopausal adults with mild hypertriglyceridemia (99131). Most clinical research suggests that DHA does not decrease total cholesterol (6143,48013,99131). Although some conflicting research exists, most research suggests that DHA modestly increases HDL cholesterol (6143,48013,48338,99131,109216). Most clinical research shows that DHA increases LDL cholesterol by about 8% to 13.6% (6143,48174,48338,109216). However, it may actually decrease levels of small, dense LDL particles (48174). There are conflicting results regarding the effects of DHA on cholesterol levels in children. One preliminary clinical study in children with primary hyperlipidemia shows that taking DHA 500 mg alone or along with EPA does not improve cholesterol levels when compared with control. However, this study was probably too small to detect statistically significant changes (90712). Other research in children aged 9 years and up with familial hypercholesterolemia or familial combined hyperlipidemia shows that taking DHA (DHASCO oil, Martek Biosciences Corp.) 1.2 grams daily for 6 weeks along with the National Cholesterol Education Program Step II (NCEP-II) diet actually increases total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol when compared to following the diet alone (48078,48083). However, some clinical research shows that DHA increases the large buoyant type of LDL particles, but actually decreases the small, dense type (48083).
Preterm labor. Most research shows that oral DHA seems to prevent preterm labor in those with low DHA status at baseline. Details: A large clinical trial shows that taking DHA 1000 mg daily during pregnancy, starting at 12-20 weeks' gestation and continuing until delivery, results in an early preterm birth rate of 1.7%, compared with 2.4% in those taking DHA 200 mg daily. Benefits were strongest in those with low DHA status at baseline, with no benefit in those with high DHA status at baseline and in those with high adherence to DHA 1000 mg daily (109204,110360). A secondary analysis of two studies shows that taking DHA 800 mg from algal oil or 1000 mg from fish oil modestly reduces the early preterm and preterm birth rates in those with a low DHA status at baseline compared with taking DHA 200 mg (110361). However, conflicting evidence exists. Some clinical research shows that taking DHA during pregnancy does not reduce the risk of preterm delivery. One study has used a specific fish oil supplement (Incromega DHA 500TG) 900 mg containing DHA 800 mg and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)100 mg daily, starting at 20 weeks' gestation and continuing to delivery or 34 weeks' gestation (101505). In another clinical trial, use of a high-DHA fish oil, providing EPA 100 mg and DHA 800 mg daily, from before 20 weeks' until 34 weeks' gestation, increases the risk of preterm birth prior to 34 weeks' gestation when compared with placebo in patients with baseline omega-3 status of greater than 4.9%. However, the risk is reduced from 3.2% to 0.7% in patients with baseline omega-3 status below 4.1%. In addition, taking this high-DHA fish oil had no effect on the risk of preterm birth prior to 37 weeks' gestation (103496). The reasons for any discrepancies may be due to the baseline omega-3 status, the use of algal or fish oil as the source of DHA, and/or the specific timing of preterm labor.

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

Age-related cognitive decline. Most research shows that taking oral DHA alone or with other ingredients does not slow or improve cognitive decline associated with age. Details: Most clinical research, from individual studies and a meta-analysis, shows that taking DHA orally, alone or with additional eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) for up to 36 months, does not slow or improve age-related cognitive decline (97175,103313). In contrast, results from one large clinical study show that taking DHA 900 mg daily in the absence of EPA for 24 weeks improves episodic memory and visuospatial learning when compared with placebo in patients with age-related cognitive decline. However, DHA did not affect working memory or executive function (90717). DHA has also been evaluated in combination with other ingredients. A moderate-sized clinical study in older adults with subjective cognitive impairment and objective mild cognitive impairment shows that taking a DHA-rich fish oil containing DHA 1.1 grams and EPA 0.4 grams 3 times daily with high-flavanol cocoa for 12 months does not improve most measures of cognitive function, and moderately worsens reaction time variability, executive function, and alertness when compared with placebo. Additionally, there is no evidence of benefit on brain volumes, and patients who took DHA-rich fish oil and cocoa had greater decreases in cortical volume at 12 months when compared with placebo (111453).
Alzheimer disease. Taking oral DHA does not seem to slow Alzheimer disease progression. Details: Population research has found that a 0.1 gram per day increment of dietary DHA intake is associated with a 37% reduced risk of Alzheimer disease when taken for 2-21 years (15041,96527). However, a dose-response relationship was not seen, and a correlation between DHA blood concentration and dementia was not seen (96527). Furthermore, clinical research shows that taking DHA 2 grams daily for 18 months does not slow cognitive or functional decline in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease (48290). DHA has also been examined in combination with other ingredients. Preliminary clinical research in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease shows that taking DHA 500 mg, as part of fish 1 gram with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 150 mg, and along with lutein 10 mg, zeaxanthin 2 mg, meso-zeaxanthin 10 mg, and vitamin E 15 mg (Memory Health) daily for 12 months does not affect disease severity when compared with placebo. However, there were modest increases the number of patients experiencing either an improvement or an attenuated decline in memory and mood (109764). The effect of DHA alone is unclear from this study.
Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Most research shows that taking oral DHA does not improve ADHD symptoms. Details: Low plasma levels of DHA are associated with ADHD in children (7599,15496). Although some preliminary clinical research shows that DHA might improve aggression, emotional problems, and social relationships in children with ADHD (15494,100940), taking DHA 345-500 mg daily or 3.6 grams weekly does not seem to improve objective or subjective measures of ADHD symptoms when compared with placebo (7599,15495,100940). DHA has also been evaluated in combination with other ingredients. A moderate-sized clinical study in drug-naïve children ages 6 to 12 years with mild to moderate ADHD shows that taking DHA 87 mg in combination with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and gamma linoleic acid (GLA) daily for 12 months does not improve inattentive symptoms, global functioning, or learning skills when compared with placebo. There also does not appear to be a correlation between plasma fatty acid levels and ADHD symptoms (111058).
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Most research shows that oral DHA does not prevent bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in preterm infants. Some research suggests that it might increase the risk of BPD in infants born before 29 weeks gestation. Details: One meta-analysis of clinical research in over 3,500 preterm infants shows that administration of EPA and DHA as part of formula or as a direct oral dose, starting within one month of birth, does not increase or decrease the risk for BPD, regardless of the dose of DHA administered (102390). A more recent meta-analysis of four clinical trials limited to infants born less than 29 weeks gestation also shows that administration of DHA at levels of at least 40 mg/kg, or at levels of at least 0.4% total fatty acids in breast milk or formula, does not increase or decrease the risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (110359). However, in this latter meta-analysis, when only clinical trials using a more stringent definition of bronchopulmonary dysplasia were included, there was a modest INCREASED risk (110359). Similar findings occurred in a study that was terminated early. This research shows that maternal supplementation with DHA 1.2 grams daily, starting within 72 hours of delivery of infants born before 29 weeks gestation, has no effect on mortality of breastfed infants or survival without BPD at 36 weeks postmenstrual age. However, the occurrence of BPD and severe BPD in surviving infants of mothers taking DHA were increased when compared to those whose mothers took placebo (104559). The conclusions of this study are limited by the early termination, the provision of intravenous DHA-rich lipids to some infants per standard of clinical care, and the increased number of infants born via cesarean delivery to the mothers randomized to DHA. A more recent clinical trial has investigated the inclusion of arachidonic acid in an enteral emulsion providing DHA. One clinical trial in preterm infants born before 29 weeks gestation shows that supplementation with an enteral emulsion containing DHA 50 mg/kg and arachidonic acid 100 mg/kg (Formulaid, DSM Nutritional Products Inc.) until 36 weeks postmenstrual age does not increase the risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia or other major morbidities compared to control (MCToil, Nutricia) emulsion. Also, infants given the arachidonic acid and DHA required 17 fewer days of respiratory support (110356).
Cognitive function. Most research shows that oral DHA does not improve cognitive function in healthy adults. Details: Most clinical research shows that taking DHA 250-1000 mg daily for up to 6 months does not improve cognitive function in healthy children, healthy adults, or older females (48194,48216,48266,90668,90708,104560). Also, cognitive function does not seem to be improved when compared with placebo in trials in which omega-3 products containing higher ratios of DHA to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) were used. These trials have used a specific product (Efamol Ltd) containing DHA 1.16 grams and EPA 0.17 grams daily (90707), DHA 900 mg plus EPA 270 mg (Accelon DHA EE, BASF) daily (109215), or fish oil (Dasbrain, Max Biocare) providing DHA 520 mg or 270 mg daily (109310), for 3 or 6 months in children and adults. However, some clinical research shows that taking algal oil containing DHA 600 mg daily for 16 weeks improves reading scores when compared with placebo in a subgroup of children ages 6-10 years who are below the 20th percentile for reading (90699). However, these results could not be replicated in a later study that included only children below the 20th percentile for reading (98542). The reason for this discrepancy is not clear. Taking DHA does not appear to improve reading scores in children at or above the 20th percentile for reading, and there does not appear to be any benefit of DHA on working memory in any children (90699).
Cystic fibrosis. Most research shows that oral DHA does not improve symptoms of cystic fibrosis. Details: Clinical research in infants, children, and young adults with cystic fibrosis shows that taking DHA (DHA-basic, CASEN Fleet SLU) 50 mg/kg daily for 48 weeks does not improve spirometry measures, reduce Pseudomonas aeruginosa primary infections, or reduce the number of, or time to, total or severe pulmonary exacerbations when compared with placebo (109217). Also, small clinical studies show that taking DHA 70 mg/kg daily for 6 weeks, or 100 mg/kg daily for one month and then 1 gram daily for 11 months, does not improve lung function or overall health in patients with cystic fibrosis (48119,90665).
Depression. Most research shows that oral DHA does not improve depression, regardless of the type. Details: Taking DHA orally does not seem to relieve symptoms of major depression, peripartum depression, or postpartum depression in most patients (10869,48030,48238,90680,90691,90692,89353,102391). Also, taking DHA for two weeks prior to the start of interferon-alpha therapy does not appear to prevent depression during interferon-alpha treatment in patients with hepatitis C, although it may delay depression onset by about 6 weeks (90710).
Macrosomia. Taking oral DHA during pregnancy does not seem to prevent fetal macrosomia. Details: Clinical research in overweight or obese individuals shows that taking DHA (S-oil, DSM Nutritional Products) 800 mg daily, starting before 15 weeks' gestation and continuing until delivery, with or without dietary counselling, does not reduce the incidence of macrosomia when compared with taking DHA 200 mg daily (109218).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Oral DHA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Increased dietary consumption of DHA is associated with a decreased risk of AMD (10324). Preliminary clinical research shows that taking a combination of DHA 280 mg, lutein 12 mg, and zeaxanthin 0.6 mg daily for one year increases macular pigment optical density by 31% when compared with placebo in patients with AMD. Increased macular pigment optical density is associated with improve vision performance and a reduced risk of AMD (90678). However, other clinical research suggests that adding DHA plus EPA to an AREDS formula, with or without lutein and zeaxanthin, does not reduce the time to development of AMD or vision loss in patients at high risk of progression to advanced AMD when compared with the AREDS formula alone (60281).
Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). Although there has been interest in using oral DHA for allergic rhinitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of DHA for this condition.
Atopic dermatitis (eczema). It is unclear if adding DHA to infant formula prevents atopic dermatitis. Details: Evidence from an observational, open-label study shows that giving full-term infants formula with added DHA 17 mg/100 kcal and arachidonic acid 34 mg/100 kcal (Enfamil Premium 1 and Enfamil Premium 2, Mead Johnson Nutrition) as needed for 12 months does not prevent the development of eczema when compared to control formulas without DHA and arachidonic acid (92505).
Atopic disease. It is unclear if oral DHA during pregnancy prevents atopic disease in the infant. Details: Clinical research shows that supplementation with DHA during pregnancy may modestly protect against some respiratory symptoms in the infants of atopic mothers. Prenatal supplementation with DHA 400 mg, taken daily from 18-22 weeks gestation until delivery, reduces the incidence of phlegm with nasal discharge or nasal congestion in the infant by the age of 18 months by approximately 22% and the incidence of fever with phlegm and nasal discharge or nasal congestion in the infant by approximately 47% when compared with placebo (90676). However, it is unclear if these symptoms are due to atopy or infections.
Atrial fibrillation. Oral DHA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Population research suggests that adipose tissue levels of DHA are not associated with a decreased risk of atrial fibrillation (90700). However, clinical research suggests that taking 2 grams per day of a combination of DHA plus EPA (2:1 ratio), starting 7 days before cardiac surgery and continuing until hospital discharge, reduces the relative risk of post-cardiac surgery atrial fibrillation by 72% when compared with placebo. These patients also received vitamin C 1 gram daily plus vitamin E 400 IU daily, starting 2 days prior to surgery and continuing until discharge (90701).
Autism spectrum disorder. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for autism. Details: One preliminary clinical study shows that taking DHA 200 mg daily for 6 months does not improve autism symptoms in children and may even worsen some behaviors (90713). Another preliminary clinical study in children and adults with autism shows that taking a specific product (SUNTGA40S, Aravita, Suntory Ltd) containing DHA, arachidonic acid, and astaxanthin daily for 16 weeks does not improve overall symptoms when compared with placebo, although the combination product may improve certain symptoms such as social withdrawal or social communication (90716).
Behcet disease. Although there has been interest in using oral DHA for Behcet disease, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of DHA for this condition.
Bipolar disorder. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for bipolar disorder in adults. Details: A small clinical trial shows that taking DHA 1250 mg daily for 12 weeks does not improve cognitive function when compared with placebo in patients with bipolar disorder (103312).
Breast cancer. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for breast cancer treatment or prevention. Details: Population research has found no association between dietary fatty acid intake, including DHA, and the risk of breast cancer (96528). The effect of DHA supplementation on breast cancer risk is unknown. Some early research has investigated the effects of DHA in patients with breast cancer. Preliminary clinical research shows that taking DHA (DHASCO, Martek Biosciences Corp.) 600 mg three times daily for 7-10 days prior to chemotherapy initiation, and then for 5 months during chemotherapy, induces complete or partial response in 44% of breast cancer patients. Patients with a greater increase in DHA levels (at least 2.5%) show a longer time to progression and longer survival when compared to those with a smaller increase in DHA levels (90671).
Cancer. Taking oral DHA with oral eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) does not seem to decrease the risk of cancer in patients with cardiovascular disease and may actually INCREASE the risk of cancer in females. The effect of DHA alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research suggests that taking a combination of EPA 400 mg plus DHA 200 mg, with or without B vitamins, for a median of 4.7 years does not reduce the risk of cancer in middle-aged and elderly patients with cardiovascular disease. Furthermore, this combination appears to increase the risk of cancer in females (90666).
Child development. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for child development. However, due to the lack of significant safety concerns and the possibility of some cognitive benefit, many experts recommend DHA 200 mg daily during pregnancy. Details: Clinical research shows that giving infants DHA-supplemented formula during infancy does not appear to improve language and school readiness by the age of 2-3.5 years, or improve neurodevelopment by the age of 6 years (90674,92503). In addition, most research suggests that DHA supplementation during pregnancy, occasionally continuing postpartum for 6 months, does not affect visual acuity, attention, working memory, behavior and most other measures of neurodevelopment by 1-7 years of age (48095,48285,48293,90679,90690,94600,96522,109219). There is some evidence to suggest that maternal supplementation with DHA 400 mg daily from 16 weeks gestation until delivery may reduce the risk of poor language development in the infant at age 14 and 18 months and the risk of lower visual acuity at 2 months when compared with placebo (90694); however, this benefit did not have lasting effects at 5-6 years of age (99133).
Cognitive impairment. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for cognitive impairment in older adults. Details: Clinical research shows that taking DHA 800 mg daily, alone or with folic acid 800 mcg daily for 6 months, modestly improves some measures of cognitive function when compared with placebo in elderly patients with mild cognitive impairment (103978). Also, taking a specific product (Vayacog, Enzymotec Ltd.) providing phosphatidylserine 300 mg, DHA about 59 mg, and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) about 20 mg daily for 15 weeks improves verbal immediate recall when compared with placebo (94665). However, other research in older patients with mild cognitive impairment disagrees. Several clinical studies show that taking DHA 720-3300 mg plus EPA 351-1200 mg daily and other ingredients such as cocoa for 12 weeks to 12 months does not improve cognitive measures including memory and forgetfulness when compared with placebo (62847,90704,94665,109220,111453). One moderate-sized clinical study in older adults with subjective cognitive impairment and mild cognitive impairment shows that taking DHA 1.1 grams and EPA 0.4 grams 3 times daily with high-flavanol cocoa for 12 months moderately worsens reaction time variability, executive function, and alertness when compared with placebo. Additionally, there is no evidence of benefit on brain volumes, and those taking DHA-rich fish oil and cocoa had a greater decrease in cortical volume at 12 months when compared with placebo (111453).
Coronary heart disease (CHD). It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for CHD. Details: Increased dietary consumption of DHA may reduce the risk of death in patients with CHD (10322). However, the effect of DHA supplements is unclear.
Crohn disease. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for Crohn disease prevention. Details: Population research suggests that increased dietary intake of DHA is associated with a reduced risk of Crohn disease (90673).
Dementia. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for dementia prevention. Details: Population research has found that a 0.1 gram per day increment of dietary DHA intake is associated with a 14% reduced risk of dementia when taken for 2-21 years. However, a dose-response relationship was not seen, and a correlation between DHA blood concentration and dementia was not seen (96527).
Developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Oral DHA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: One small clinical study in children with DCD shows that taking a tuna fish oil product providing DHA 480 mg daily for 4 months, in combination with evening primrose oil providing arachidonic acid 35 mg and gamma-linolenic acid 96 mg, thyme oil 24 mg, and vitamin E 80 mg (Efalex, Efamol Ltd.), modestly decreases movement disorders as determined by objective measures when compared with baseline (5708). It is unclear if these benefits are due to DHA, other ingredients, or the combination. Also, the validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
Diabetes. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for glycemic control or the prevention of type 1 or gestational diabetes. Details: A small clinical study in adults with type 2 diabetes shows that taking DHA orally does not improve levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol or decrease blood sugar or glycated hemoglobin. However, triglyceride levels are reduced (10321). DHA has also been evaluated for the prevention of gestational or type 1 diabetes. Clinical research in overweight or obese individuals shows that taking DHA (S-oil, DSM Nutritional Products) 800 mg daily, starting before 15 weeks' gestation and continuing until delivery, with or without dietary counselling, does not reduce the incidence of gestational diabetes when compared with taking DHA 200 mg daily (109218). Additionally, population research suggests that maternal serum levels of DHA are not associated with the risk of childhood onset of type 1 diabetes (90705).
Diabetic retinopathy. Oral DHA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with diabetic macular edema related to diabetic retinopathy receiving ranibizumab shows that taking a combination supplement containing DHA 1050 mg daily along with other free fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins (Brudyretina, Brudy Lab S.L.) for 2 years reduces macular thickness, but not visual acuity, when compared with ranibizumab alone. The effect of DHA alone is unknown (96526).
Diarrhea. It is unclear if infant formula containing DHA is beneficial for diarrhea prevention. Details: Preliminary clinical research suggests that giving full-term infants formula with added DHA 17 mg/100 kcal and arachidonic acid 34 mg/100 kcal (Enfamil Premium 1 and Enfamil Premium 2, Mead Johnson Nutrition) as needed for 12 months reduces the incidence of diarrhea requiring medical attention when compared to control formulas (92505).
Dyslexia. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for improving night vision in children with this condition. Details: One small clinical study in children with dyslexia shows that taking fish oils rich in DHA, providing 480 mg daily for one month, seem to develop significantly better dark adaptation when compared with controls (5708).
Dysmenorrhea. Although there has been interest in using oral DHA for dysmenorrhea, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of DHA for this condition.
Fractures. Oral DHA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A large clinical study shows that taking omega-3 fatty acids 1 gram daily, providing DHA 660 mg and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 330 mg, for 3 years does not prevent fractures in adults over 70 years of age when compared with placebo. These findings were consistent in adults taking omega-3 fatty acids alone or combined with vitamin D 2000 IU daily and/or strength training three times weekly (104619).
Glaucoma. Oral DHA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A very small clinical study in older adults with glaucoma shows that taking DHA 1.5 grams 3 times daily with citicoline for 3 months reduces the amount and rate of visual field loss and improves visual field index but does not reduce intraocular pressure when compared to baseline (112236). It is unclear if these effects are due to DHA, citicoline, or the combination; however, since no effects were found in the groups administered DHA or citicoline alone, it is possible that the effects are due to the combination of ingredients. The validity of these effects is limited by a lack of a control group and the very small sample size.
Hypertension. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for reducing blood pressure in adults or if prenatal supplementation reduces blood pressure in children. Details: Clinical research shows that taking DHA-enriched canola oil containing 63% oleic acid and 6% DHA for 4 weeks reduces systolic blood pressure by 3% and diastolic blood pressure by 4% when compared to baseline in adults with at least one cardiovascular risk factor (26466). A meta-analysis of clinical research in adults with dyslipidemia shows that supplemental DHA reduces diastolic, but not systolic, blood pressure when compared with control (102389). A large clinical study shows that taking omega-3 fatty acids 1 gram daily, providing DHA 660 mg and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 330 mg, for 3 years does not reduce blood pressure levels in adults over 70 years of age when compared with placebo. These findings were consistent in adults taking omega-3 fatty acids alone or combined with vitamin D 2000 IU daily and/or strength training three times weekly. About 39% of the individuals included in this study were diagnosed with hypertension and about 50% were using antihypertensives (104619). The effect of DHA alone on blood pressure levels in a population of adults with diagnosed hypertension is unclear. Prenatal supplementation with DHA has also been evaluated for the prevention of hypertension in children. A secondary analysis of a large clinical trial shows that overweight children or children with obesity whose mothers took DHA 600 mg daily, starting at about 14.5 weeks' gestation and continuing until birth, have lower diastolic and systolic blood pressure at 5 years of age when compared with those whose mothers took placebo. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure were reduced by about 4 mm Hg and 5 mm Hg, respectively, in the children exposed to DHA during pregnancy when compared with those exposed to placebo. The blood pressure of the children exposed to DHA during pregnancy was similar to that of children with normal weight (98891). Results of this study are limited by the fact that confounding factors, such as shorter duration of breast-feeding and increased sodium intake for children with obesity in the placebo group, may have also contributed to differences in blood pressure. It is unclear if this reduction in elevated blood pressure during childhood reduces the risk of hypertension in adulthood.
IgA nephropathy. Although there has been interest in using oral DHA for IgA nephropathy, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of DHA for this condition.
Infant development. Infant supplementation with DHA does not seem to improve development. Also, most evidence shows that maternal supplementation with DHA is not beneficial for infant cognitive development. However, due to the lack of significant safety concerns and the possibility of some cognitive benefit, many experts recommend DHA 200 mg daily during pregnancy. Details: Most clinical research shows that giving healthy, full-term infants formula supplemented with DHA 0.32% to 0.96% modestly improves measures of visual acuity at 2, 4, and 12 months of age when compared with standard infant formula (14403,15003,47980,48355,90670). However, formula supplemented with DHA 0.15% does not appear to improve visual acuity by about 12 months when given to preterm infants (48008). There is some evidence that giving healthy, full-term infants DHA-supplemented formula during infancy might improve language comprehension and development, as well as fine motor skills, by the age of 12-14 months when compared with standard formula (48247,48356). However, most clinical research, including meta-analyses of high-quality clinical trials, shows that giving infants formula supplemented with DHA during infancy does not improve overall cognition or motor skills at 12-14 months of age, regardless of DHA dosing or prematurity status (48247,48356,89363). Experts generally recommend breast-feeding as the preferred feeding method over DHA-supplemented formula; however, if formula is used, some experts suggest a formula providing at least 0.2% of lipids from DHA (14403). Some population research suggests that higher maternal DHA levels are associated with improved use of gestures and problem solving in infants (90709,99132). However, population research suggests that higher maternal DHA levels also appear to be associated with worsening mental development (90709), and most clinical research shows that maternal ingestion of DHA has little effect on fetal or infant development. Maternal ingestion of DHA 33-133 mg daily from an egg source or 400 mg daily from an algal-based source does not seem to significantly increase weight, length, or head circumference at birth (14395,48286). Also, maternal ingestion of DHA 200-400 mg daily from week 15-22 of pregnancy until term does not significantly improve visual or auditory development in term infants (14393,90706). A small clinical trial shows that taking DHA 1440 mg daily from fish oil also providing eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 260 mg, from 22-24 weeks gestation until delivery, does not improve most measures of developmental or behavioral milestones in the infant at 6 months, when compared with olive oil placebo (110354). In addition, most research suggests that DHA supplementation during pregnancy, occasionally continuing postpartum for 6 months, does not affect growth to age 18 months or visual acuity, attention, working memory, behavior and most other measures of neurodevelopment by 1-7 years of age (48095,48285,48293,90679,90690,94600,96522,109219). However, there is some evidence to suggest that maternal supplementation with DHA 214 mg daily may improve infant sleep patterning on the first day of life (90687). Also, maternal supplementation with DHA 400 mg daily from 16 weeks gestation until delivery may reduce the risk of poor language development in the infant at age 14 and 18 months and the risk of lower visual acuity at 2 months when compared with placebo (90694). However, this benefit did not have lasting effects at 5-6 years of age (99133).
Intraventricular hemorrhage. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for preventing intraventricular hemorrhage in premature infants. Details: Preliminary clinical research in infants born before 29 weeks gestation shows that supplementation with an enteral emulsion containing DHA 50 mg/kg and arachidonic acid 100 mg/kg (Formulaid, DSM Nutritional Products Inc.) until 36 weeks postmenstrual age has no effect on the incidence of intraventricular hemorrhage when compared with a control emulsion (110356).
Keratoconus. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for improving vision in people with keratoconus. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with early to advanced keratoconus shows that taking DHA 1000 mg daily for 3 months does not improve corneal thickness, measurements of corneal curve, or most other ophthalmological measures when compared with taking no DHA (110358).
Lower respiratory tract infections. It is unclear if formula containing DHA is beneficial for preventing lower respiratory tract infections in infants. Details: Clinical research shows that giving preterm infants formula or breast milk containing high-dose DHA (1% of fatty acids) does not prevent hospitalizations due to bronchiolitis and other lower respiratory tract conditions when compared with giving breast milk or formula containing 0.35% DHA (90667). However, preliminary clinical research shows that giving full-term infants formula with added DHA 17 mg/100 kcal and arachidonic acid 34 mg/100 kcal (Enfamil Premium 1 and Enfamil Premium 2, Mead Johnson Nutrition) as needed for 12 months reduces the risk of bronchiolitis and croup when compared with control formulas (92505).
Male infertility. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for improving fertility. Details: Clinical research shows that taking DHA (NuaDHA, Nua Biological Innovations SL) 0.5, 1, or 2 grams daily for 3 months increases progressive sperm motility by 24% to 30% when compared with placebo in men with a history of infertility. The greatest effects were seen in men with asthenozoospermia, with an overall effect of 35 (99134). It is unclear if the effects of DHA on sperm function correlate with increased fertility rates.
Metabolic syndrome. Although there has been interest in using oral DHA for metabolic syndrome, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of DHA for this condition.
Migraine headache. Although there has been interest in using oral DHA for migraine headache, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of DHA for this condition.
Muscle strength. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for increasing muscle strength. Details: A large clinical study shows that taking omega-3 fatty acids 1 gram daily, providing DHA 660 mg and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 330 mg, for 3 years does not increase muscle strength in adults over 70 years of age when compared with placebo. These findings were consistent in adults taking omega-3 fatty acids alone or combined with vitamin D 2000 IU daily and/or strength training three times weekly (104619).
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for preventing NEC in preterm infants. Details: Clinical research in preterm infants shows that providing DHA (Neuromins for Kids life's DHA; DSM Nutritional Products Inc.) 75 mg/kg for 14 days from the first enteral feed reduces the risk of confirmed NEC by 7% when compared with a control oil. Treatment of 15 infants with DHA would be needed to prevent one case of NEC (109213). However, preliminary clinical research shows that maternal supplementation with DHA 1.2 grams daily, starting within 72 hours of delivery of infants born before 29 weeks' gestation, has no effect on the incidence of NEC in breastfed infants at 36 weeks postmenstrual age when compared with placebo (104559). Other preliminary clinical research in infants born before 29 weeks gestation shows that supplementation with an enteral emulsion containing DHA 50 mg/kg and arachidonic acid 100 mg/kg (Formulaid, DSM Nutritional Products Inc.) until 36 weeks postmenstrual age has no effect on the incidence of NEC when compared with a control emulsion (110356).
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for NAFLD. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking DHA (Martek Biosciences Corporation) 250-500 mg daily for 6-24 months reduces the risk of severe liver steatosis when compared with placebo in children with NAFLD (48295,90695,90696).
Obesity. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for improving weight loss in overweight or obese adults. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking 2.8 grams daily of an oil emulsion containing approximately 46% DHA for 12 weeks decreases carbohydrate and fat intake, but does not reduce body weight or improve body composition, when compared with placebo in overweight or obese adults (90681).
Otitis media. It is unclear if DHA in infant formula is beneficial for preventing otitis media in infants. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that giving full-term infants formula with added DHA 17 mg/100 kcal and arachidonic acid 34 mg/100 kcal (Enfamil Premium 1 and Enfamil Premium 2, Mead Johnson Nutrition) for 12 months does not prevent the development of ear infection when compared with control formulas (92505).
Phenylketonuria (PKU). It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for PKU. Details: Children with PKU consume very low amounts of DHA. Clinical research shows that taking DHA up to approximately 7 mg/kg daily for 6 months improves DHA status, but not neurological function, in children aged 5-13 years with PKU (99631). The effect of higher doses of DHA, or the effect of DHA supplementation on neurological function in younger children with PKU, have not been determined.
Physical performance. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for increasing physical performance in older adults. Details: A large clinical study shows that taking omega-3 fatty acids 1 gram daily, providing DHA 660 mg and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 330 mg, for 3 years does not improve physical performance in adults over 70 years of age when compared with placebo. These findings were consistent in adults taking omega-3 fatty acids alone or combined with vitamin D 2000 IU daily and/or strength training three times weekly (104619).
Postoperative pain. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for reducing postoperative analgesic use. Details: A post-hoc analysis shows that enteral DHA 75 mg/kg administered perioperatively to infants born at greater than 34 weeks gestation who are undergoing cardiac surgery reduces the cumulative analgesic dose and shortens the duration of buprenorphine during the postoperative period when compared with placebo. However, the use of fentanyl or ketorolac were not reduced (96524).
Prematurity. It is unclear if oral DHA during lactation or in early infancy is beneficial for increasing growth or neurodevelopment of the premature infant. Details: Clinical research in lactating individuals who delivered prior to 29 weeks' gestation shows that taking DHA 1.2 grams daily, starting within 72 hours of delivery and continuing until the infant reached 36 weeks postmenstrual age, might have beneficial effects on the growth of female infants, but not male infants, when compared with placebo. Weight velocity and weight gain were significantly increased in the female infants, with a weight gain of 52.6 grams. However, weight gain and weight velocity were not improved in the male infants, and weight at 36 weeks postmenstrual age was 89 grams less than those whose mothers took placebo (109221). In addition, there was no improvement in neurodevelopmental outcomes at 18 to 22 months corrected age (110364). Other clinical research in infants born before 29 weeks' gestation shows that giving enteral DHA 60 mg/kg daily until 36 weeks corrected gestational age does not improve most measures of intelligence at 5 years when compared with placebo (110363). However, a cohort study in premature infants born before 29 weeks' gestation suggests that supplementation with enteral high-dose DHA emulsion 60 mg/kg daily to match in-utero requirements until 36 weeks' gestational age or discharge home is associated with an increased risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia and a 3.45 point benefit in intelligence quotient (IQ) at 5 years' corrected age. Further analysis of this relationship suggests that the increased risk effect of bronchopulmonary dysplasia from neonatal high-dose DHA is not associated with a decrease in the beneficial effects of DHA on IQ (112238).
Prostate cancer. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for prostate cancer prevention. Details: Observational research has found that higher consumption of DHA is associated with a reduced risk of total, advanced, and aggressive prostate cancer when compared to lower consumption of DHA (12961,25937). However, a meta-analysis of multiple population studies has found that higher DHA blood levels are associated with a 2.5-fold higher risk of aggressive prostate cancer, but not low-grade prostate cancer, when compared with lower blood percentages of DHA (25936). Another meta-analysis of population research has found that a higher blood level of DHA is associated with a slight increased risk of non-aggressive prostate cancer (90677).
Psoriasis. Although there has been interest in using oral DHA for psoriasis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of DHA for this condition.
Raynaud syndrome. Although there has been interest in using oral DHA for Raynaud syndrome, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of DHA for this condition.
Restenosis. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for preventing restenosis in people with stents. Details: Observational research has found that initiation of statin therapy in patients receiving stent placement after an acute coronary event is associated with a reduction in DHA levels. These reductions in DHA are associated with a greater prevalence of in-stent restenosis. From these results, researchers postulate that patients newly started on a statin after stent placement for acute coronary syndrome might benefit from DHA supplementation (100939). However, the effect of DHA supplementation is unknown.
Retinitis pigmentosa. Evidence for the use of oral DHA for retinitis pigmentosa is inconsistent and contradictory. Details: Some clinical research shows that taking DHA 1200 mg daily for 4 years does not improve eye function in patients with retinitis pigmentosa who are also taking vitamin A when compared with placebo (48070). Also, taking DHA 600-3600 mg daily for 4 years does not maintain rod or cone function in boys or men with retinitis pigmentosa when compared with placebo (90683). However, a report of ancillary outcomes from this study shows that taking DHA might slow the rate of decline in final dark-adapted thresholds and visual field sensitivity in these patients (95738). Also, some research shows that taking DHA 400 mg daily for 4 years does maintain rod and cone function in some patients, although visual function is not improved when compared with placebo (48057,48115).
Retinopathy of prematurity. It is unclear if maternal or infant supplementation with oral DHA is beneficial for preventing retinopathy of prematurity. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that maternal supplementation with DHA 1.2 grams daily, starting within 72 hours of delivery of infants born before 29 weeks gestation, has no effect on the incidence of retinopathy of prematurity in breastfed infants at 36 weeks postmenstrual age when compared with placebo (104559). Other preliminary clinical research in infants born before 29 weeks gestation shows that supplementation with an enteral emulsion containing DHA 50 mg/kg and arachidonic acid 100 mg/kg (Formulaid, DSM Nutritional Products Inc.) until 36 weeks postmenstrual age has no effect on the incidence of retinopathy of prematurity when compared with a control emulsion (110356).
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Although there has been interest in using oral DHA for RA, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of DHA for this condition.
Schizophrenia. Oral DHA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking EPA 1000 mg, DHA 500 mg, and alpha-lipoic acid 150 mg twice daily for up to 2 years after discontinuing antipsychotic treatment does not prevent relapse in patients with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, or schizophreniform disorder (90675).
Sepsis. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for preventing sepsis in premature infants. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that maternal supplementation with DHA 1.2 grams daily, starting within 72 hours of delivery of infants born before 29 weeks gestation, has no effect on the incidence of sepsis in breastfed infants at 36 weeks postmenstrual age when compared with placebo (104559). Other preliminary clinical research in infants born before 29 weeks gestation shows that supplementation with an enteral emulsion containing DHA 50 mg/kg and arachidonic acid 100 mg/kg (Formulaid, DSM Nutritional Products Inc.) until 36 weeks postmenstrual age has no effect on the incidence of sepsis when compared with a control emulsion (110356).
Sickle cell disease. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for treating sickle cell disease. Details: A very small clinical study in adults with sickle cell disease shows that eating mayonnaise enriched with DHA 1900 mg and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) daily for 28 days does not reduce vaso-occlusive crisis pain or biomarkers of systemic inflammation (112237). The validity of these effects is limited by a lack of a comparator group and a very small sample size.
Spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA). It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for SCA. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with SCA shows that taking DHA 600 mg daily for 16 weeks reduces ataxia and improves cerebellar hypometabolism upon brain imaging when compared with placebo. These beneficial effects are sustained when DHA is taken for an additional 40 weeks (96525).
Stroke. It is unclear if oral DHA is beneficial for stroke prevention. Details: Population research has found that serum DHA levels may be associated with a reduced risk of ischemic stroke, as well as any specific type of ischemic stroke, including cardioembolic stroke, atherothrombotic stroke, and lacunar stroke (90715).
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Although there has been interest in using oral DHA for SLE, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of DHA for this condition.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) nephritis. Although there has been interest in using oral DHA for SLE nephritis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of DHA for this condition.
Ulcerative colitis. Although there has been interest in using oral DHA for ulcerative colitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of DHA for this condition.
Vascular dementia. It is unclear if DHA is beneficial for improving dementia severity. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with vascular dementia shows that taking DHA 0.72 grams daily for one year improves dementia severity based on the Hasegawa's Dementia Rating Scale and Mini-Mental State Examination Scale scores when compared to baseline (47940). More evidence is needed to rate DHA for these uses.

EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID (EPA) (Eicosapentaenoic Acid)

EFFECTIVE

Hypertriglyceridemia. Oral prescription ethyl-EPA 4 grams daily reduces triglyceride levels in patients with hypertriglyceridemia, especially in severe cases. It is unclear if oral EPA supplements are beneficial in hypertriglyceridemia. Details: A specific ethyl-EPA product (Vascepa, formerly ARM101, Amarin) is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to be used at a dose of 4 grams daily with diet modification to reduce triglyceride levels in adult patients with severe (≥ 500 mg/dL) hypertriglyceridemia. Clinical research shows that taking 4 grams daily in two divided doses for 12 weeks reduces triglyceride levels by 33%, total cholesterol by 16%, very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol by 29%, and apolipoprotein B by 9% when compared with placebo (91410). In patients taking statins with persistent elevated triglyceride levels (between 200 mg/dL and 500 mg/dL), this prescription product reduces triglyceride levels by about 22% and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by about 6% when compared with placebo (91409). In females with diabetes taking statins with persistent elevated triglyceride levels, this product reduces triglyceride levels by about 21.5% and total cholesterol levels by 12.5%, but does not reduce levels of LDL cholesterol when compared with placebo (99136). Furthermore, a large clinical trial (REDUCE-IT) in patients with LDL cholesterol levels controlled with statin therapy, but with persistent elevated triglyceride levels and other cardiovascular risk factors, shows that this product reduces the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events by 25% when compared with placebo after a median follow-up of 4.9 years. The number of these patients needed to be treated to prevent one major adverse cardiovascular event is 21 (95715). Preliminary clinical research in patients with hypertriglyceridemia also shows that taking a specific self-emulsifying ethyl-EPA (MND-2119, Mochida Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) 2 grams or 4 grams once daily for 52 weeks reduces levels of triglycerides by 16.7% and 21.0%, respectively, compared with baseline (110365). This study is uncontrolled and open-label. There is no strong evidence that EPA SUPPLEMENTS reduce triglyceride levels in patients with hypertriglyceridemia.

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

Cardiovascular disease (CVD). Oral prescription ethyl-EPA seems to reduce the risk of CVD events when used as an adjunct to statin therapy in patients with CVD risk. It is unclear if oral EPA supplements are beneficial in CVD. Details: A specific ethyl EPA product (Vascepa, Amarin) is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to be used as an adjunct to statin therapy to reduce the risk of cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction and stroke in adult patients with elevated triglycerides (≥ 150 mg/dL) and CVD or diabetes mellitus and at least two additional risk factors for CVD (101286). This approval was mostly due to evidence from a large clinical trial (REDUCE-IT). For patients in the REDUCE-IT trial on statin therapy with persistent elevated triglyceride levels and other cardiovascular risk factors, taking Vascepa 4 grams daily reduced the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events by 25% when compared to placebo after a median follow-up of 4.9 years. To prevent one major cardiovascular event, 21 patients need to be treated (95715). There is no strong evidence that EPA SUPPLEMENTS reduce CVD risk in patients with hypertriglyceridemia.
Depression. Oral EPA seems to reduce symptoms of depression, especially in patients already being treated with conventional antidepressants. Details: Meta-analyses of clinical research show that pure EPA or omega-3 fatty acid enriched in EPA (at least 60%) moderately reduces depressive symptoms in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) and those with depressive symptomatology but no diagnosis of MDD (90680,66129,102391). The beneficial effect of EPA appears to be dose-dependent in patients with MDD but not in those with depressive symptomatology (90680). The duration of treatment and the age of the patients do not appear to influence the effects of EPA (66129). Patients already being treated with conventional antidepressant medications may benefit more from EPA than those not taking antidepressants. Preliminary clinical research shows that taking ethyl-EPA orally 500 mg to 1 gram twice daily with standard therapy improves symptoms of recurrent major depression, such as depressed mood, guilty feelings, worthlessness, and insomnia, after 2-4 weeks of treatment (10215,10872). A 1 gram per day dose of ethyl-EPA may be more effective for depression than 2 grams per day (10215). However, in patients not using standard therapy, taking EPA-enriched omega-3 fatty acid (ProEPA Xtra, NordicNaturals) standardized to contain EPA 1060 mg and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 274 mg daily for 8 weeks does not reduce symptoms of depression in patients with MDD (90691). Some research suggests that EPA may help prevent the development of major depression in patients treated with interferon-alpha. Clinical research shows that only 10% of patients taking EPA 3.5 grams daily for 2 weeks prior to the start of interferon-alpha therapy experience major depression during the 24 weeks of interferon-alpha treatment compared to 30% of patients taking placebo. Also, the onset of depression is delayed from approximately 5.3 weeks to 12 weeks (90710). Based on these and other findings, Guidelines from The World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) and Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) Taskforce state that omega-3 fatty acids providing 1-2 grams EPA are recommended for adjunctive use in patients with major depressive disorder. However, omega-3 fatty acids are not recommended as monotherapy and products containing other doses of EPA are not recommended as adjunctive or monotherapy in these patients (110318).
Myocardial infarction (MI). Oral prescription ethyl-EPA reduces the risk of MI when used as an adjunct to statin therapy in patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Oral EPA supplements also seem to be beneficial for this purpose. Details: A specific ethyl-EPA product (Vascepa, Amarin) 4 grams daily is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to be used as an adjunct to statin therapy to reduce the risk of cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction and stroke in adult patients with elevated triglycerides (≥ 150 mg/dL) and CVD or diabetes mellitus and at least two additional risk factors for CVD (101286). The effects of EPA SUPPLEMENTS for MI are less clear. Clinical research in patients with acute MI shows that taking EPA 1.8 grams daily along with pitavastatin 2 mg daily for one month starting within 24 hours of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) reduces the incidence of adverse cardiac events, including cardiac death, stroke, re-infarction, ventricular arrhythmias, and paroxysmal atrial fibrillation, by 64% when compared with pitavastatin alone. In particular, the incidence of ventricular arrhythmias is reduced by about 66% for patients treated with EPA plus pitavastatin compared to pitavastatin alone (91411). Taking this same dose of EPA along with the same dose of pitavastatin for one year after PCI in patients with acute MI also reduces the absolute risk of cardiovascular death, MI, stroke, or coronary revascularization by 11% when compared to pitavastatin alone. The reduction in cardiovascular events after one year was largely due to a decrease in cardiovascular deaths by about 6% (96420). There is also evidence that taking EPA 1.8 grams daily along with pitavastatin 4 mg daily for 6-8 months following PCI for acute coronary syndrome reduces plaque lipid volume by 20% when compared to pitavastatin alone (96419). One clinical study also shows that taking EPA 0.9 grams twice daily along with statins for one month prior to undergoing PCI might reduce the incidence of periprocedural (type IV) MI by approximately 25% when compared to statins alone (91412).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD). It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for AMD prevention. Details: Population research suggests that increased dietary consumption of EPA does not prevent AMD (10324).
Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). Although there has been interest in using oral EPA for allergic rhinitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of EPA for this condition.
Alzheimer disease. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for Alzheimer disease prevention. Details: Population research suggests that higher dietary intake of EPA is not associated with a decreased risk of developing Alzheimer disease (15041).
Asthma. Although there has been interest in using oral EPA for asthma, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of EPA for this condition.
Atopic dermatitis (eczema). Although there has been interest in using oral EPA for atopic dermatitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of EPA for this condition.
Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for ADHD treatment or prevention. Details: Some research shows that low plasma levels of EPA and other fatty acids are associated with ADHD in children (15496); however, it is not known if taking EPA supplements can treat or prevent ADHD.
Behcet disease. Although there has been interest in using oral EPA for Behcet disease, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of EPA for this condition.
Bipolar disorder. Oral fish oil in doses providing 1-2 grams EPA may be beneficial for symptoms of depression in patients with bipolar disorder. It is unclear if EPA alone is beneficial. Details: Guidelines from The World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) and Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) Taskforce state that omega-3 fatty acids in doses standardized to 1-2 grams EPA are weakly recommended for adjunctive use in bipolar depression (110318). This recommendation is based mainly on an early meta-analysis of clinical research of various omega-3 sources (66126). Three clinical trials in this meta-analysis examined the effect of EPA alone in patients with bipolar disorder (110366,110367,110368), with only one study in patients also using stable routine treatment examining the effect of ethyl-EPA 1 gram or 2 grams daily for 12 weeks showing benefit on symptoms of depression, but not mania (110366). The largest clinical trial in patients with bipolar disorder shows that taking ethyl-EPA 6 grams daily for 4 months does not improve symptoms of depression or mania (110368). These findings suggest an unclear effect of ethyl-EPA on symptoms of depression, with no evidence of support for improving symptoms of mania. Also, theoretically, fish oil, a source of EPA in some clinical trials, might increase symptoms of mania in patients with bipolar disorder. Cases of hypomania have been reported in patients with bipolar disorder using fish oil (5713,7202).
Borderline personality disorder. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for improving symptoms of borderline personality disorder. Details: A small clinical trial shows that taking ethyl-EPA 1 gram orally daily for 8 weeks modestly improves aggressive behavior and depression in patients with moderately severe borderline personality disorder when compared with placebo (10348).
Cachexia. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for maintaining lean body mass in patients undergoing chemotherapy. Details: In patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer, taking an oral nutritional supplement containing EPA (ProSure, Abbott Nutrition) 2 grams daily while undergoing chemotherapy modestly increases lean body mass by 1.6 kg, on average, compared with a 2 kg LOSS of lean body mass with an isocaloric nutritional supplement (91413). In patients with head and neck cancer, starting EPA 2 grams daily along with a polymeric diet prior to chemotherapy and continuing for 6 weeks results in weight and lean body mass maintenance when compared with baseline. However, this maintenance did not differ statistically from losses of 2.1 kg and 1.3 kg, respectively, in patients using the polymeric diet without EPA (99135). A meta-analysis of eight studies in cancer patients shows that taking EPA, usually alone in doses of 1.5-2.2 grams daily for 4-6 weeks, does not seem to prevent loss of lean body mass when compared with placebo. However, it is unclear how many of the included patients had malnutrition and/or weight loss (106070). Also, this analysis included two studies in which EPA was combined with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in fish oil.
Chemotherapy-induced diarrhea. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for preventing diarrhea during treatment with chemotherapy. Details: In patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer, taking an oral nutritional supplement containing EPA (ProSure, Abbott Nutrition) 2 grams daily while undergoing chemotherapy with paclitaxel and cisplatin/carboplatin does not seem to prevent diarrhea when compared with taking an isocaloric control nutritional supplement (91413).
Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV). It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for preventing nausea and vomiting during treatment with chemotherapy. Details: In patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer, taking an oral nutritional supplement containing EPA (ProSure, Abbott Nutrition) 2 grams daily while undergoing chemotherapy with paclitaxel and cisplatin/carboplatin does not seem to prevent nausea or vomiting when compared with taking an isocaloric control nutritional supplement (91413).
Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for preventing peripheral neuropathy during treatment with chemotherapy. Details: In patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer, taking an oral nutritional supplement containing EPA (ProSure, Abbott Nutrition) 2 grams daily while undergoing chemotherapy with paclitaxel and cisplatin/carboplatin moderately prevents the development of neuropathy symptoms when compared with taking an isocaloric control nutritional supplement (91413).
Chemotherapy-related fatigue. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for preventing fatigue during treatment with chemotherapy. Details: In patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer, taking an oral nutritional supplement containing EPA (ProSure, Abbott Nutrition) 2 grams daily while undergoing chemotherapy with paclitaxel and cisplatin/carboplatin modestly reduces symptoms of fatigue when compared with taking an isocaloric control nutritional supplement (91413).
Cognitive function. It is unclear if oral EPA alone is beneficial for improving cognitive function. Details: Clinical research in young and middle-aged adults shows that taking an omega-3 supplement providing EPA 900 mg plus docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 360 mg (Accelon EPA EE, BASF) daily for 6 months improves some measures of cognitive function, including overall speed and overall memory-related accuracy, when compared with both placebo or an omega-3 supplement providing DHA 900 mg and EPA 270 mg daily (Accelon DHA EE, BASF). There were no benefits on other measures of cognitive performance (109215).
Colorectal adenoma. Taking oral EPA with aspirin might reduce the development of new colorectal adenomas. However, it is unclear if oral EPA alone is beneficial. Details: Clinical research in adults determined to be at high risk for colorectal cancer shows that taking EPA 2 grams, with or without aspirin 300 mg, daily for one year does not reduce the rate of adenoma detection during colonoscopy when compared with placebo or aspirin alone. However, the combination of EPA with aspirin seems to reduce the total number of detected adenomas when compared with taking either EPA or aspirin alone (102501).
Coronary heart disease (CHD). It is unclear if oral EPA alone is beneficial for CHD. Details: Population research suggests that increased dietary consumption of EPA is associated with a modest decrease in the risk of mortality in patients with CHD (10322). Also, preliminary clinical research shows that patients with hypercholesterolemia and a history of CHD who take ethyl-EPA 600 mg three times daily have a 19% reduction in the risk of major coronary events; however, ethyl-EPA doesn't appear to reduce sudden cardiac death (15497).
Cystic fibrosis. Although there has been interest in using oral EPA for cystic fibrosis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of EPA for this condition.
Diabetes. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for glycemic control. Details: A small study shows that taking EPA 4 grams daily for 6 weeks does not seem to substantially improve cholesterol, blood sugar, or glycated hemoglobin in patients with type 2 diabetes when compared with placebo. However, triglyceride levels are reduced (10321).
Dysmenorrhea. Although there has been interest in using oral EPA for dysmenorrhea, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of EPA for this condition.
Exercise-induced muscle damage. It is unclear if oral EPA alone is beneficial for preventing exercise-induced muscle damage. Details: Small clinical studies in untrained healthy males show that taking fish oil providing EPA 600 mg and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 260 mg daily for 4-8 weeks prior to exhaustive unaccustomed exercise has beneficial effects on immediate and/or delayed muscle soreness and range of motion when compared with placebo (98257,109222).
Fractures. Oral EPA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A large clinical study shows that taking omega-3 fatty acids 1 gram daily, providing EPA 330 mg and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 660 mg, for 3 years does not prevent fractures in adults over 70 years of age when compared with placebo. These findings were consistent in adults taking omega-3 fatty acids alone or combined with vitamin D 2000 IU daily and/or strength training three times weekly (104619).
Huntington disease. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for this condition. Details: A meta-analysis of five clinical studies in adults with Huntington disease shows that taking EPA 1-2 grams daily for 6 months does not improve motor scores or symptoms when compared with placebo. In two clinical studies that continued for an additional 6 months, EPA supplementation improved total motor score at 12 months. However, the validity of this finding is confounded because the largest clinical trial included in this analysis converted to an open-label design after the first 6 months, eliminating the placebo control and introducing the risk for patient and investigator bias (102505).
Hypercholesterolemia. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for improving lipid levels. Details: Small clinical trials shows that taking EPA alone reduces serum triglyceride concentrations, but has no effect on total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in mildly hypercholesterolemic males (6143,10322). The effect of EPA on cholesterol levels in other populations has also been evaluated. In patients with type 2 diabetes, EPA can increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels by approximately 12% (10321). In normolipidemic individuals, an algal oil enriched in EPA reduced levels of very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and total cholesterol but had no effect on triglyceride or LDL cholesterol levels (103314). Also, a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking EPA modestly decreases total and LDL cholesterol levels when compared with placebo (109216). However, not all patients in these studies had hyperlipidemia, and EPA was usually provided in oils that also include docosahexaenoic acid.
Hypertension. Small clinical studies suggest that oral EPA, when used alone or in combination with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), does not lower blood pressure. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research in adults with dyslipidemia shows that supplemental EPA reduces systolic, but not diastolic, blood pressure when compared with control (102389). Other preliminary clinical research in adults with slightly elevated diastolic blood pressure (84-94 mmHg) also shows that taking a combination of EPA 0.48 grams plus gamma-linolenic acid 0.12 grams does not reduce diastolic blood pressure (13771). A large clinical study shows that taking omega-3 fatty acids 1 gram daily, providing EPA 330 mg and DHA 660 mg, for 3 years does not reduce blood pressure levels in adults over 70 years of age when compared with placebo. These findings were consistent in adults taking omega-3 fatty acids alone or combined with vitamin D 2000 IU daily and/or strength training three times weekly. About 39% of the individuals included in this study were diagnosed with hypertension and about 50% were using antihypertensives (104619).
IgA nephropathy. Although there has been interest in using oral EPA for IgA nephropathy, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of EPA for this condition.
Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). It is unclear if oral EPA during pregnancy reduces the risk of IUGR. Details: A small clinical study in patients with a history of IUGR during a previous pregnancy shows that taking EPA 3 grams daily, starting at 12-14 weeks gestation and continuing until delivery, does not seem to reduce the risk of IUGR when compared with placebo (1027).
Lung cancer. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for lung cancer treatment. Details: In patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer, taking an oral nutritional supplement containing EPA (ProSure, Abbott Nutrition) 2 grams daily while undergoing chemotherapy with paclitaxel and cisplatin/carboplatin does not improve tumor response rate, survival, or physical functioning over a 12 month period when compared with taking an isocaloric control nutritional supplement (91413).
Menopausal symptoms. It is unclear if oral EPA reduces hot flashes after menopause. Details: In post-menopausal adults with mild hot flash symptoms, clinical research shows that taking ethyl-EPA (ethyl-EPA) 500 mg three times daily, provides modest reduction in the frequency of hot flashes when compared with placebo. After 8 weeks of treatment, the mean number of hot flashes decreased by 1.58 per day in those taking ethyl-EPA. However, taking ethyl-EPA did not significantly decrease the severity of hot flashes or improve overall quality of life (16901). Research in patients with more severe hot flash symptoms is needed to confirm these results.
Metabolic syndrome. Although there has been interest in using oral EPA for metabolic syndrome, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of EPA for this condition.
Migraine headache. Although there has been interest in using oral EPA for migraine headache, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of EPA for this condition.
Muscle strength. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for increasing muscle strength. Details: A large clinical study shows that taking omega-3 fatty acids 1 gram daily, providing EPA 330 mg and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 660 mg, for 3 years does not increase muscle strength in adults over 70 years of age when compared with placebo. These findings were consistent in adults taking omega-3 fatty acids alone or combined with vitamin D 2000 IU daily and/or strength training three times weekly (104619).
Physical performance. Taking EPA does not seem to improve physical performance in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for increasing physical performance in older adults. Details: Clinical research in mechanically ventilated patients shows that taking EPA 2 grams daily for 10 days, alone or with beta-hydroxymethylbutyrate 3 grams daily, does not increase diaphragm or quadriceps strength or thickness when compared with placebo (109223). Also, a large clinical study shows that taking omega-3 fatty acids 1 gram daily, providing EPA 330 mg and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 660 mg, for 3 years does not improve physical performance in adults over 70 years of age when compared with placebo. These findings were consistent in adults taking omega-3 fatty acids alone or combined with vitamin D 2000 IU daily and/or strength training three times weekly (104619).
Postoperative infection. Oral EPA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that enteral nutrition supplemented with EPA in combination with RNA and L-arginine, given during the postoperative period, reduces the percentage of patients experiencing postoperative infectious/wound complications and shortens the duration of hospitalization by about 4 days when compared to standard enteral nutrition (5531). It is not clear if this effect is due to EPA, RNA, L-arginine, or the combination.
Postoperative recovery. It is unclear if oral EPA helps to maintain postoperative lean body mass. Details: Weight loss and malnutrition are common after esophageal cancer resection. Preliminary clinical research shows that administering EPA-enhanced enteral nutrition does not attenuate loss of body weight or lean body mass by one month post-esophagectomy when compared with standard enteral nutrition (96504).
Pregnancy-induced hypertension. It is unclear if oral EPA during pregnancy reduces the risk of hypertension. Details: A small study in patients with a history of intrauterine growth restriction during a previous pregnancy shows that taking EPA 3 grams daily, starting at 12-14 weeks gestation and continuing until delivery, does not seem to reduce the risk of pregnancy-induced hypertension when compared with placebo (1027).
Prostate cancer. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for prostate cancer treatment or prevention. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking EPA 4.48 grams and docosahexaenoic acid 2.88 grams daily for 12 weeks reduces prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels in men with normal PSA levels at baseline. However, it is unclear if this effect was due to EPA alone. Additionally, it is unclear if this leads to a reduced risk for prostate cancer (89423). Observational research regarding the association between EPA and prostate cancer risk is conflicting. Although some early research suggests a possible association, a meta-analysis including this and other prospective observational research shows that increased dietary intake or serum levels of EPA are not associated with overall prostate cancer risk (90677,102503). One observational study in men with existing low-risk prostate cancer shows that the highest tertile of prostate tissue levels of EPA, as well as the highest tertile of dietary intake, is associated with 71% to 75% reduced odds for progression to high-grade prostate cancer when compared with the lowest tertile (102502). However, other prospective observational research suggests that increased dietary intake of EPA may be associated with an increased risk for fatal prostate cancer (102503). High-quality prospective research is needed to clarify these findings.
Psoriasis. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial in psoriasis. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking ethyl-EPA 1.8 grams daily in combination with low-dose (20 mg per day) etretinate (Tegison, no longer available in the US) for 12 weeks is more effective than etretinate alone for plaque psoriasis (66478).
Quality of life. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for improving quality of life in patients with cancer. Details: A meta-analysis of eight clinical trials in cancer patients shows that taking EPA, usually alone in doses of 2-2.2 grams daily for 6-12 weeks, does not seem to improve quality of life when compared with placebo (106070). This analysis included two studies in which EPA was combined with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in fish oil.
Schizophrenia. Evidence for the use of oral EPA in schizophrenia is conflicting. Details: Some clinical research shows that EPA improves mental state and reduces dyskinesia when taken along with antipsychotic medications (8720). However, other clinical research shows that EPA does not improve mental state, cognitive function, or mood in patients with schizophrenia who are taking antipsychotics (10347). A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that EPA modestly improves the mental state of patients with schizophrenia who are not taking antipsychotic medications prior to treatment, but not those already being treating with antipsychotics at baseline. Some evidence suggests that ethyl-EPA might be more effective than EPA. Taking EPA does not appear to significantly decrease the need for conventional antipsychotics (15039). EPA or ethyl-EPA 1-3 grams daily in divided doses for 12-16 weeks has been used in these studies (8720,15039).
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Although there has been interest in using oral EPA for SLE, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of EPA for this condition.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) nephritis. Although there has been interest in using oral EPA for SLE nephritis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of EPA for this condition.
Ulcerative colitis. It is unclear if oral EPA is beneficial for ulcerative colitis prevention and treatment. Details: Population research derived from the Nurses' Health Study shows that a higher dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids is associated with a reduced incidence of ulcerative colitis. One study shows that taking EPA 1 gram twice daily for 6 months reduces fecal calprotectin levels, a marker of intestinal mucosal inflammation, by 40% when compared with placebo. Additionally, a 27% reduction in disease relapse was seen in the EPA group (96503).
Wound healing. Although there has been interest in using oral EPA for wound healing, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of EPA for this condition. More evidence is needed to rate eicosapentaenoic acid for these uses.

GAMMA-LINOLENIC ACID (GLA) (Gamma-Linolenic Acid)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

Diabetic neuropathy. Clinical research suggests that oral GLA may improve nerve function and symptoms of diabetic neuropathy in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Details: Two clinical trials in patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes and diabetic neuropathy show that taking GLA 360-480 mg daily for 6-12 months improves measures of nerve function and symptoms of neuropathy, including muscle weakness, impaired tendon reflexes, and impaired sensation, when compared with placebo (1984,8926). GLA seems to be more effective in patients with better glucose control when compared with patients with poor glucose control (8926).

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

Atopic dermatitis (eczema). Most research suggests that oral GLA does not improve the symptoms or severity of atopic dermatitis in children and adults. Details: A meta-analysis of 11 small clinical studies in children and adults with atopic dermatitis shows that taking GLA from borage oil or evening primrose oil does not improve the severity of atopic dermatitis when compared with placebo oils. Adult doses in these studies ranged from 132-720 mg daily for 3-24 weeks. Child doses ranged from 90-480 mg daily for 3-16 weeks (13758). Also, a more recent clinical study in adults with mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis shows that taking a food product containing GLA 200 mg daily for 12 weeks does not improve skin hydration, itching, or redness when compared with a control (92868). Conversely, one small open-label clinical trial in infants with atopic dermatitis shows that taking GLA 3 grams daily for 4 weeks might reduce redness, itching, and use of antihistamines when compared to baseline (51042). The validity of these findings is limited by a lack of placebo control.

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Oral GLA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials evaluating GLA, fish oil, and antioxidants, provided as a specific enteral formula (Oxepa, Abbott Nutrition) or a combination supplement given as a bolus, shows that there is no effect on overall all-cause mortality or ventilator- or ICU-free days when compared with generally isonitrogenous and isocaloric control formulas. A subgroup analysis of lower quality research shows that there may be a modest benefit for patients with a higher risk of mortality (105250). Two more recent meta-analyses have yielded similar results. Although most of the studies included in these meta-analyses investigated the use of Oxepa, some studies investigating other sources of enteral or intravenous fish oil were also included (105248,105249). In one of these analyses, some low- to very low-quality evidence suggests that use of Oxepa modestly reduces mortality at 28 days, as well as ICU length of stay and duration of mechanical ventilation (105248). However, these benefits were not found in the second meta-analysis (105249). It is unclear if GLA, when used alone, is beneficial in patients with ARDS.
Asthma. Oral GLA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with asthma shows that taking 10 grams of a medical food emulsion providing GLA 0.75 grams with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 0.5 grams, or 15 grams of a medical food emulsion providing GLA 1.13 grams with EPA 0.75 grams, daily for 4 weeks does not improve self-reported overall symptoms of asthma and bronchodilator use at 2 or 4 weeks when compared with placebo. Another small clinical study shows that taking medical food EFF1009, providing GLA 0.75 grams and EPA 0.5 grams, daily for 4 weeks modestly reduces bronchodilator use and improves quality of life and symptoms such as wheezing when compared to baseline (105251). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group and a high dropout rate.
Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Oral GLA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in drug-naïve children ages 6 to 12 years with mild to moderate ADHD shows that taking GLA 60 mg in combination with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) daily for 12 months results in some small beneficial effects on inattentive symptoms when compared with placebo. However, these changes are unlikely to be clinically useful. Also, there was no change in blood levels of fatty acids (111058). The effect of GLA itself is unclear from this study.
Autism spectrum disorder. Although there has been interest in using oral GLA for autism spectrum disorder, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of GLA for this purpose.
Back pain. Oral GLA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: One clinical trial in patients with back pain due to compressive radiculopathy syndrome shows that taking GLA 360 mg and alpha-lipoic acid 600 mg daily for 6 weeks while undergoing rehabilitation therapy reduces pain intensity and improves disability status when compared with rehabilitation therapy alone (20489). It is unclear if these findings are due to GLA, alpha-lipoic acid, or the combination.
Breast cancer. It is unclear if oral GLA is beneficial in patients with breast cancer. Details: A small clinical study in patients with various stages of endocrine-sensitive breast cancer shows that taking GLA 2.8 grams daily along with tamoxifen for 6 weeks seems to improve the response to tamoxifen when compared with tamoxifen alone (5902).
Hyperlipidemia. Although there has been interest in using oral GLA for hyperlipidemia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of GLA for this purpose.
Hypertension. Oral GLA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with modestly elevated diastolic blood pressure (DBP) shows that taking a combination of GLA 0.12 grams plus eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 0.48 grams does not reduce DBP when compared with olive oil (13771). However, another small clinical study in patients with hypertension shows that taking 4 grams of an oil preparation rich in GLA, EPA, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) daily for 6 weeks reduces DBP when compared with sunflower seed oil (51022). It is unclear if these findings are due to GLA, other ingredients, or the combination.
Mastalgia. Oral GLA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small preliminary clinical trial in patients with mastalgia shows that taking GLA 100 mg daily in combination with vitamin C and vitamin B12 as methylcobalamin for 12 weeks does not improve the proportion of patients with minimal or no pain when compared with taking placebo (111059).
Menopausal symptoms. Although there has been interest in using oral GLA for menopausal symptoms, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of GLA for this purpose.
Pressure ulcers. Oral GLA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with acute lung injury shows that taking a specific enteral emulsion (Oxepa, Ross Laboratories) providing GLA from borage oil along with fish oil and vitamins A, C and E for 7 days does not improve the healing of existing pressure ulcers when compared with a control enteral formula. Although the number of pressure ulcers in the group given the GLA-containing formula was lower when compared with the control formula, these patients also had fewer pressure ulcers at baseline and no statistical comparison was conducted. The clinical significance of this finding is unclear (105252).
Psoriasis. Although there has been interest in using oral GLA for psoriasis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of GLA for this purpose.
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Although there has been interest in using oral GLA for RA, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of GLA for this purpose.
Rosacea. It is unclear if oral GLA is beneficial in patients with rosacea. Details: A small clinical study in adults with rosacea shows that taking GLA (Evoprim) 320 mg daily along with minocycline 50 mg twice daily for 8 weeks improves patient satisfaction and measures of skin hydration and increases the rate of treatment success, defined as an investigator global assessment score of 1 or lower, indicating clear or minimal symptoms, by 2-fold when compared with placebo plus minocycline (107927).
Scleroderma. It is unclear if oral GLA is beneficial in patients with scleroderma. Details: A small clinical study in patients with scleroderma shows that taking GLA (dose unknown) for 6 months does not reduce symptoms of scleroderma when compared with placebo (1977).
Ulcerative colitis. Oral GLA has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with ulcerative colitis shows that taking a combination of GLA 1.6 grams, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 270 mg, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 45 mg daily for 12 months does not reduce symptoms when compared with placebo (51013). More evidence is needed to rate GLA for these uses.

MEDIUM CHAIN TRIGLYCERIDES (MCTs) (MCT)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

Cachexia. Intravenous MCTs can provide calories in critically ill patients and patients with refractory cachexia, but do not seem to offer any advantages over long chain triglycerides. Details: Several small clinical studies in critically ill patients and patients with refractory cachexia secondary to cancer show that receiving parenteral nutrition with a 1:1 mixture of MCTs and long chain triglycerides is similarly effective to long chain triglycerides alone for improving metabolic parameters or nutritional status (2275,2276,93739).

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

HIV/AIDS-related wasting. Oral MCTs do not seem to promote weight gain or prevent weight loss in patients with HIV infection. Details: A large clinical study in patients with HIV infection shows that taking a peptide-based supplement containing MCTs (Peptamen Oral Complete Elemental Diet, Nestlé Clinical Nutrition) with multivitamins and minerals is no more effective than taking multivitamins and minerals alone for promoting weight gain or preventing weight loss (11730).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

Age-related cognitive decline. It is unclear if oral MCTs are beneficial in patients with age-related cognitive decline. Details: A small, single-blind clinical study in older adults residing in a nursing home shows that taking MCTs 6 grams (a 3:1 mixture of caprylic acid:capric acid), with or without L-leucine 1.2 grams and vitamin D (cholecalciferol) 20 mcg, daily for up to 3 months increases mini-mental state exam (MMSE) scores by an average of 3.5 points, compared with a 0.7-point decline in those receiving a long chain triglyceride control. MMSE scores returned to baseline 1.5 months after discontinuation of MCT supplementation (105710).
Alzheimer disease. Small clinical studies suggest that oral MCTs do not improve cognition in patients with Alzheimer disease or mild cognitive impairment. Details: A meta-analysis of small clinical studies in patients with Alzheimer disease or mild cognitive impairment shows that taking MCTs (as combinations of caprylic acid and capric acid) in doses of 20-56 grams or 22.5-165 mL daily for up to 6 months does not improve cognition when compared with placebo or baseline (103012).
Athletic performance. It is unclear if oral MCTs are beneficial for endurance athletic performance. Details: A very small clinical study in 10 male recreational endurance runners shows that taking a ketone supplement containing MCTs and a salt form of beta-hydroxybutyrate 60 minutes prior to a run does not improve 5-kilometer run time when compared with placebo (107738). This study may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups.
Celiac disease. Although there has been interest in using oral MCTs for celiac disease, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of MCTs for this purpose.
Chylothorax. It is unclear if oral MCTs improve time to resolution of spontaneous congenital chylothorax in neonates. Details: A small retrospective study in neonates with spontaneous congenital chylothorax shows that administering MCTs does not improve the time to resolution of chylothorax when compared with total parenteral nutrition (11729).
Chyluria. Although there has been interest in using oral MCTs for chyluria, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of MCTs for this purpose.
Cystic fibrosis. Although there has been interest in using oral MCTs for cystic fibrosis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of MCTs for this purpose.
Diabetes. Although there has been interest in using oral MCTs for diabetes, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of MCTs for this purpose.
Epilepsy. It is unclear if oral MCTs are beneficial in adults and adolescents aged 12 years or older with drug-resistant epilepsy. Details: A small clinical study in adults and adolescents aged 12 years or older with drug-resistant epilepsy shows that adjunctive treatment with MCTs (Stepan Lipid Nutrition) as part of a non-ketogenic diet, 47-65 mL daily (about 35% of energy intake), or a maximally tolerated dose not exceeding 100 mL, for 12 weeks reduces median seizure frequency by 46% when compared with baseline (101967). The validity of this study is limited by its small sample size and the lack of a comparator group.
Gallbladder disease. Although there has been interest in using oral MCTs for gallbladder disease, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of MCTs for this purpose.
Hypertriglyceridemia. Oral MCTs might improve triglyceride levels and body weight in some patients with overweight and hypertriglyceridemia, but its effect in other populations is unclear. Details: Clinical research in patients with overweight and hypertriglyceridemia shows that taking 25-30 grams of an oil containing MCTs 13% daily for 8 weeks decreases triglyceride levels by 78 mg/dL when compared with consuming oil containing only long chain fats. Body weight, body fat, and waist circumference also decreased (93740). However, this benefit may be restricted to this specific population only. Some research in patients with obesity or patients with a normal body weight shows that taking 25-30 grams of an oil containing MCTs daily for 8 weeks does not lower triglyceride levels (93741).
Obesity. Small clinical studies suggest that oral MCTs modestly improves weight loss; however, any effects may not be clinically relevant. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking MCTs decreases body weight by 0.5 kg, waist circumference by 1.5 cm, and hip circumference by 0.8 cm when compared with a control group not taking MCTs. Doses used in available research have ranged from 1-54 grams daily, or 1% to 24% of energy for 4-16 weeks (93735). Most research shows that at least 4 weeks is needed before effects are seen. The greatest benefit seems to occur in patients of Asian descent, males, and patients with higher body mass indices at baseline (93730,93731,93735,93736). While MCTs may improve weight loss in some patients, the effects are generally modest and may not be clinically relevant.
Prematurity. It is unclear if oral or topical MCTs are beneficial in preterm infants. Details: A meta-analysis of small studies involving 136 otherwise healthy preterm infants receiving full enteral diets with formula as the predominant source of nutrition shows that administration of formulas containing at least 30% of fat by weight as MCTs (ranging in concentration from 6% to 80%) for at least 7 days does not affect short-term growth, including weight, length, and head circumference, when compared with formulas containing less than 30% of fat by weight as MCTs. Due to small study sizes, it is unclear whether either type of formula was better tolerated. The validity of this analysis is limited by the presence of unclear risk of potential bias in the included studies (105711). MCT oil has also been evaluated for the prevention of gastrointestinal Candida infections. A very small clinical study in preterm infants shows that adding MCT oil (Nestlé Health Science) 0.5 mL per ounce of formula or breast milk for 1 week reduces Candida colonization when compared with no MCT oil (101968). Topical use of MCT oil has also been evaluated for growth in preterm infants. A small clinical study in preterm infants weighing 1500-2000 grams shows that massage with MCT oil, consisting of tactile and kinesthetic stimulation, three times daily for 7 days increases weight gain when compared with no massage (107739). The validity of this finding is limited by unclear reporting. Also, it is unclear if this effect is due to MCT oil, massage, or the combination.
Primary intestinal lymphangiectasia. It is unclear if oral MCTs are beneficial for the management of primary intestinal lymphangiectasia. Details: A review of 55 case reports suggests that taking MCTs as part of a low-fat, high-protein diet resolves symptoms in 63% of patients with primary intestinal lymphangiectasia, compared with 36% of patients receiving no treatment or other treatments such as diuretic therapy, albumin transfusions, resection of isolated segments of affected bowels, etc. Mortality is also reduced by 79% in patients treated with diet restrictions and MCTs when compared with those receiving no treatment or other treatments (93733).
Sarcopenia. It is unclear if oral MCTs are beneficial in frail older adults. Details: A small clinical study in older adults residing in a nursing home shows that taking MCTs 6 grams, leucine 1.2 grams, and vitamin D (cholecalciferol) 20 mcg daily for 3 months increases body weight by 1.1 kg, right-hand grip strength by 13%, and peak expiratory flow by 28% when compared with baseline. These improvements are also significant when compared with patients receiving no supplementation (93729). In a second study in this same population conducted by the same research group, taking MCTs 6 grams, with or without leucine 1.2 grams and vitamin D (cholecalciferol) 20 mcg, daily for 3 months does not increase body weight or hand grip strength. There were small to moderate improvements in opening and closing the legs, repetitive swallowing, and measures of functional independence (101970). The validity of these findings is limited by the single-blind nature of the studies and the large number of endpoints. It is also unclear if any benefits are due to MCTs, other ingredients, or the combination.
Short bowel syndrome. Although there has been interest in using oral MCTs for short bowel syndrome, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of MCTs for this purpose. More evidence is needed to rate MCTs for these uses.

OLEIC ACID

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

Coronary heart disease (CHD). Supporting, but not conclusive, evidence suggests that consuming fats and oils rich in oleic acid might reduce the risk of CHD (26466,95745,98563,101821). However, the relationship between blood levels of oleic acid and risk of CHD or CVD is unclear (101832,101834,101838). In 2018, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) determined that it would allow a qualified health claim stating that replacing dietary fats and oils higher in saturated fat with oils containing at least 70% oleic acid may reduce the risk of CHD. To achieve this benefit, high-oleic acid containing oils should not increase total daily energy intake. The suggested daily dietary intake is about 20 grams (1.5 tablespoons) of high oleic acid oils in place of other fats and oils. These oils include olive oil, high-oleic acid sunflower oil, and high-oleic acid canola oil (98563). A meta-analysis of clinical studies shows that replacing 7.5% of energy from partially hydrogenated vegetable oils with high oleic acid sunflower oil can reduce coronary heart disease risk by about 9% to 19%. Furthermore, analysis of results from observational studies found that replacing partially hydrogenated oil with high oleic acid sunflower oil is associated with a 16% to 35% reduction in the risk of coronary heart disease events (95745). Clinical research in patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk shows that taking high-oleic acid canola oil 60 grams per 3000 kcal of energy daily as part of a fixed composition diet for 4-6 weeks reduces the Framingham 10-year coronary heart disease risk scores by 6.8% compared to baseline (26466,101821). However, taking the high-oleic acid canola oil is no more effective than regular canola oil, which contains approximately 62% oleic acid (26466,101821). The relationship between blood levels of oleic acid and risk of CHD or CVD is unclear. While some population research has found that having the highest blood levels of oleic acid is associated with an increased risk of CVD when compared to having the lowest blood levels of oleic acid, other research suggests an inverse association or no association at all (101832,101834,101838). One study has found that having the highest blood levels of oleic acid is associated with a 1.4- to 2-fold increased risk of heart failure, other cardiovascular events, and all-cause mortality (101832). In contrast, another found that the highest blood levels of oleic acid is associated with a 73% reduced risk of having a stroke (101838). A third study found no association at all between plasma levels of oleic acid and risk of heart failure (101834). The clinical significance of these findings is unclear, and results should not necessarily be extrapolated to dietary oleic acid (101832). While plasma oleic acid levels seem to be a weak indirect marker of moderate to high olive oil use, it is also a weak marker of intake of butter and avian fats (101838). Furthermore, there is no clear evidence that plasma levels of oleic acid directly correlate with dietary oleic acid, especially where dietary oleic acid intake is relatively low (101832). As a non-essential fatty acid, oleic acid is endogenously synthesized in the liver from saturated fats (101832,101834,101838).
Hypercholesterolemia. Evidence from small studies shows that consuming oils rich in oleic acid as part of the diet in place of other dietary fats may improve cholesterol levels (21698,26466,67569,101821). Preliminary clinical research in patients with hypercholesterolemia shows that consuming oleic acid as part of a high oleic sunflower oil- or high oleic canola oil-rich diet for 3-4 weeks decreases total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels by a moderate amount when compared with diets rich in palm oil, medium-chain triglycerides, or a blend of fats found in a regular Western diet (21698,67569). Other clinical research in patients with at least one cardiovascular risk factor shows that consuming oleic acid as part of high oleic acid canola oil for up to 4 weeks reduces total cholesterol by up to 9.4% and LDL cholesterol by up to 12.5% compared to baseline or a diet higher in saturated fats. However, taking the high oleic acid canola oil is no more effective than regular canola oil, also a source of oleic acid (26466,101821).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

Bladder cancer. Population research has found that the highest blood levels of oleic acid are associated with a 46% decreased risk of having bladder cancer when compared to the lowest blood levels (101844). However, plasma oleic acid levels are only a weak indirect marker of dietary intake of oleic acid. As a non-essential fatty acid, oleic acid is endogenously synthesized in the liver from saturated fats (101832,101834,101838). The effect of oleic acid supplementation on bladder cancer risk is unknown.
Breast cancer. Population research has found no association between dietary fatty acid intake, including oleic acid, and the risk of breast cancer (96528). The effect of oleic acid supplementation on breast cancer risk is unknown.
Depression. An observational study in perimenopausal patients aged 42-52 years has found that increasing dietary intake of oleic acid is associated with an increase in depression symptom scores. The odds ratio for depressive symptoms was approximately 2-fold higher for the highest quartile of oleic acid intake when compared with the lowest quartile (108924).
Diabetes. A small clinical trial in patients with type 2 diabetes shows that taking oleic acid as part of a low-fat diet containing 15% monounsaturated fatty acids for 3 weeks does not alter levels of total or low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol or the change in LDL oxidation when compared with taking linoleic acid as part of a low-fat diet containing 15% polyunsaturated fatty acids (101847).
Diarrhea. Preliminary clinical research in patients with chronic diarrhea shows that taking oleic acid 1.6 or 3.2 mL before a meal reduces bowel movements over the next 24 hours by approximately 22% compared with taking no oleic acid. Intestinal transit time was also increased by 28 and 54 minutes, respectively (101848). Since the specific cause of chronic diarrhea differed among the patients included in this study, it is unclear if oleic acid is beneficial for most or only certain forms of chronic diarrhea.
Hypertension. Preliminary clinical research in patients with central obesity and at least one other cardiovascular disease risk factor shows that taking oleic acid as high oleic acid canola oil for 4 weeks does not reduce systolic or diastolic blood pressure compared to baseline (26466).
Obesity. Preliminary clinical research in patients with central obesity shows that taking oleic acid as high oleic acid canola oil for 4 weeks reduces abdominal fat mass by approximately 0.1 kg compared to baseline (98564). Other preliminary clinical research in patients with central adiposity and at least one other risk factor of cardiovascular disease shows that taking high oleic acid canola oil for 6 weeks reduces total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by 3.4% and 5.6%, respectively, compared with a control oil lower in monounsaturated fats and higher in saturated fats (101821). However, in these studies, taking the high oleic acid canola oil is no more effective than regular canola oil, also a source of oleic acid (98564,101821). Any effect of oleic acid itself is unclear.
Pancreatic cancer. The association between dietary oleic acid and pancreatic cancer risk is unclear. Most population research shows no association between dietary oleic acid and pancreatic cancer risk. However, one large population study has found that the highest intake of oleic acid, at least 23.7 grams daily, is associated with a 71% decreased risk of pancreatic cancer when compared with the lowest intake. The benefit is only observed in overweight or obese individuals. (101833). The effect of oleic acid supplementation on pancreatic cancer risk is unknown.
Short bowel syndrome. A small preliminary clinical trial in patients with surgical short bowel syndrome of at least 2 years shows that taking oleic acid 3.2 mL in 50 mL of a beverage daily for 3 months does not reduce intestinal transit time or diarrhea, or improve body weight, when compared with placebo. In addition, energy absorption was reduced by 14% (101843).
Stroke. Population research has found that highest blood levels of oleic acid are associated with a 73% reduced risk of stroke when compared with lowest blood levels of oleic acid (101838). However, plasma oleic acid levels are only a weak indirect marker of dietary oleic acid. As a non-essential fatty acid, oleic acid is endogenously synthesized in the liver from saturated fats (101832,101834,101838). The effect of oleic acid supplementation on stroke risk is unknown.
Ulcerative colitis. Although some contradictory evidence exists, a large population study has found that, after adjusting for dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids, highest dietary intake of oleic acid is associated with a 97% reduced odds of developing ulcerative colitis when compared with the lowest intake (101846). The effect of oleic acid supplementation on ulcerative colitis risk is unknown.

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Safety view details

Below is general information about the safety of the known ingredients contained in the product Premium CLA 3-6-9. Some ingredients may not be listed. This information does NOT represent a recommendation for or a test of this specific product as a whole.

CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID (CLA) (CLA)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts found in foods. CLA occurs naturally in milk fat, beef, and the meat of other ruminant animals (5924,5925,5932,5933).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts of up to 6. 8 grams daily, short-term (2819,2821,3153,4947,10410,11327,111056).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts found in foods. CLA occurs naturally in milk fat, beef, and the meat of other ruminant animals (5924,5925,5932,5933).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts. Some evidence suggests that CLA 3 grams daily can be taken safely for up to 7 months (45713).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts found in foods (5924,5932,5933). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of CLA when used in medicinal amounts during pregnancy or lactation; avoid using.

DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID (DHA) (Docosahexaenoic Acid)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. DHA has been used safely in studies lasting up to 4 years (1016,1043,6413,10321,10869,11333,90684). Fish oil supplements containing DHA have also been safely used in studies lasting up to 7 years (1016). While doses of DHA up to 4 grams orally daily have been used safely in some clinical research (6143), there is some concern that high intake of omega-3 fatty acids such as DHA might increase the risk of bleeding. For this reason, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that consumers limit intake of DHA plus eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), another omega-3 fatty acid also found in fish oil, to 3 grams daily, with no more than 2 grams daily from a dietary supplement (95739).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used intravenously and appropriately, in combination with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), short-term. Daily infusions with an omega-3 fatty acid-based lipid emulsion (Omegavenous 10%, Fresenius Aktiengesellschaft) providing 4.2 grams/day of DHA and EPA has been used safely for 14 days (1004).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in high doses. Doses greater than 3 grams daily might decrease platelet aggregation and increase the risk of bleeding (1313). The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that consumers limit intake of DHA plus eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), another omega-3 fatty acid, to 3 grams daily, with no more than 2 grams daily from a dietary supplement (95739).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately. DHA is a component of some infant formula (424,1045,5708,5941,7599,14403,15003,15495,17735,48088)(48194,48266,48343,90665,90713,90716,110357). In children 7 years and older, DHA 30 mg/kg daily has been used safely for up to 4 years (90684). Also, DHA 0.4-1 grams daily has been safely used in children ages 4 years and older for up to 1 year (11333,90665,100940,104560).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in preterm infants born less than 29 weeks gestation. Although not all findings agree (110356,110359), supplementation with an enteral emulsion containing DHA 40 mg/kg to 60 mg/kg daily might increase the risk of developing or worsening bronchopulmonary dysplasia compared to control emulsion (96523,110359).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately. An intake of DHA 650 mg daily from food and/or supplements during pregnancy seems to be required to prevent a reduction in DHA status before delivery (110329). DHA is commonly used during pregnancy and lactation and is a component of some prenatal supplements. DHA is a normal component of breast milk, with higher levels in breast milk following term vs. preterm pregnancies (14393,14394,14396,14400,14403,14397,20000,47977,47994,48095)(90672,90718,110355). When taken as a prenatal supplement, DHA increases DHA levels in breast milk (90685). Doses of DHA ranging from 300-600 mg daily beginning during the first trimester of pregnancy have been used safely in clinical research (90672,90676,90687,90694). When taken during lactation, DHA increases DHA levels in breast milk (109214,110362). When initiated within 72 hours of delivery of a very preterm infant, taking DHA 1.2 grams daily increases DHA levels in breast milk within 14 days (109214). One study found that DHA supplementation during lactation increased the risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in breast-feeding infants born less than 29 weeks gestational age (104559); however, it is unclear if this was due to DHA or various confounding factors. The tolerable upper intake level of DHA during pregnancy or lactation has not been established; most experts recommend DHA 200-300 mg daily. While it is typically advised that this need is met by consuming 8-12 ounces of seafood weekly during pregnancy and 4-8 ounces weekly during lactation, those with nutrient deficiency or those following a vegan diet may meet this need with supplementation (95740,95741).

EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID (EPA) (Eicosapentaenoic Acid)

LIKELY SAFE ...when fish oil or prescription EPA is used orally and appropriately as a source of EPA. Fish oil containing EPA has been used safely for up to 7 years (1016,7819,15497). While doses of prescription EPA (Vascepa, formerly ARM101, Amarin) have been used safely at doses up to 4 grams daily (91409,91410,95715,99136), there is some concern that high intake of omega-3 fatty acids such as EPA might increase the risk of bleeding. For this reason, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that consumers limit intake of EPA plus docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), another omega-3 fatty acid also found in fish oil, to 3 grams daily, with no more than 2 grams daily from a dietary supplement (95739).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when algal oil is used orally and appropriately as a source of EPA. A specific algal oil supplement (Almega PL) providing EPA 250 mg daily has been used with apparent safety for up to 12 weeks (103314). ...when used intravenously under the guidance of a healthcare professional. Fish oil or omega-3 fatty acid lipid emulsions containing EPA, administered intravenously for 1-4 weeks, have been safely used (1004,66042,66421,89323).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in high doses. Doses greater than 3 grams daily might decrease blood coagulation and increase the risk of bleeding (1313). The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that consumers limit intake of EPA plus DHA, another omega-3 fatty acid, to 3 grams daily, with no more than 2 grams daily from a dietary supplement (95739).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

GAMMA-LINOLENIC ACID (GLA) (Gamma-Linolenic Acid)

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. GLA appears to be safe when taken in oral doses of up to 2.8 grams daily for up to a year (1983,7701,7702,8926,107927).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

MEDIUM CHAIN TRIGLYCERIDES (MCTs) (MCT)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately (11726,11727,11728,11729,11730,93729). ...when used parenterally and appropriately (2275,2276,2278,11726,11727,11728,11729). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of MCTs when used topically.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

OLEIC ACID

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in food amounts. Edible oils containing high amounts of oleic acid are commonly used in foods (26466,90681,94452,101821,101824,101828,101830,101838). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of oleic acid when used as medicine.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using in amounts greater than those commonly found in foods.

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Interactions with Drugs view details

Below is general information about the interactions of the known ingredients contained in the product Premium CLA 3-6-9. Some ingredients may not be listed. This information does NOT represent a recommendation for or a test of this specific product as a whole.

CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID (CLA) (CLA)

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS

Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination.

Severity = High • Occurrence = Possible • Level of Evidence = D

Theoretically, CLA may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.

Details

Some clinical evidence suggests that intake of CLA reduces platelet aggregation by approximately 10% (45607). The clinical significance of this effect is unclear.

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS

Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination.

Severity = Moderate • Occurrence = Possible • Level of Evidence = A

Theoretically, taking CLA with antihypertensive drugs might increase the risk of hypotension.

Details

Animal research suggests that a particular form of CLA reduces systolic blood pressure (45081). Also, some clinical research shows that CLA enhances the blood pressure-lowering effects of ramipril, an antihypertensive drug (45569).

RAMIPRIL (ALTACE)

Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination.

Severity = Moderate • Occurrence = Possible • Level of Evidence = A

Theoretically, taking black seed with ramipril might increase the risk of hypotension.

Details

Some clinical research shows that CLA enhances the blood pressure-lowering effects of ramipril (45569).

DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID (DHA) (Docosahexaenoic Acid)

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS

Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination.

Severity = High • Occurrence = Unlikely • Level of Evidence = B

Theoretically, DHA may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.

Details

Although some clinical evidence suggests that DHA might reduce collagen-stimulated platelet aggregation and thromboxane release, most clinical evidence suggests that DHA alone does not affect blood clotting (11112,11113,48020). However, theoretically, when given in combination with EPA as fish oil, concomitant use with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs (including aspirin) might increase risk of bleeding.

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS

Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination.

Severity = Moderate • Occurrence = Possible • Level of Evidence = B

Theoretically, taking DHA with antidiabetes drugs might reduce the effects of these medications.

Details

In people with type 2 diabetes, including those taking oral hypoglycemic medications, DHA seems to increase fasting blood glucose levels (10321).

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS

Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination.

Severity = Moderate • Occurrence = Probable • Level of Evidence = B

Theoretically, taking DHA with antihypertensive drugs might increase the risk of hypotension.

Details

Fish oils containing DHA can lower blood pressure and might have additive effects in patients treated with antihypertensives (1001,1020,1030,1033,47944,48013,48020,48163); use with caution.

EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID (EPA) (Eicosapentaenoic Acid)

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS

Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination.

Severity = High • Occurrence = Possible • Level of Evidence = B

Theoretically, EPA may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.

Details

In human research, taking EPA has been shown to inhibit platelet aggregation (9930).

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS

Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination.

Severity = Moderate • Occurrence = Probable • Level of Evidence = B

Theoretically, taking EPA with antihypertensive drugs might increase the risk of hypotension.

Details

Fish oils containing EPA can lower blood pressure and might have additive effects in patients treated with antihypertensives (1001,1020,1030,1033); use with caution.

GAMMA-LINOLENIC ACID (GLA) (Gamma-Linolenic Acid)

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS

Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination.

Severity = High • Occurrence = Possible • Level of Evidence = D

Theoretically, GLA might increase the risk of bleeding when taken with anticoagulant or antiplatelet rugs.

Details

Animal and human research suggests that GLA reduces platelet aggregation (1979).

MEDIUM CHAIN TRIGLYCERIDES (MCTs) (MCT)

None known.

OLEIC ACID

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS

Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination.

Severity = Moderate • Occurrence = Possible • Level of Evidence = B

Theoretically, oleic acid might increase the effects of antidiabetes drugs. Preliminary clinical research in patients with type 2 diabetes taking oral hypoglycemic drugs shows that eating a diet rich in oleic acid from olive oil decreases fasting blood glucose levels when compared to eating a diet rich in linoleic acid from sunflower oil (8132). It is unknown if taking oleic acid supplements would have this effect or if this change is clinically significant. Until more is known, use caution. Dose adjustment may be necessary. Some antidiabetes drugs include glimepiride (Amaryl), glyburide (DiaBeta, Glynase PresTab, Micronase), insulin, metformin (Glucophage), pioglitazone (Actos), rosiglitazone (Avandia), and others.

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Adverse Effects view details

Report an Adverse Reaction to Premium CLA 3-6-9

Below is general information about the adverse effects of the known ingredients contained in the product Premium CLA 3-6-9. Some ingredients may not be listed. This information does NOT represent a recommendation for or a test of this specific product as a whole.

CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID (CLA) (CLA)

General ...Orally, CLA is well tolerated when found in foods. When taken in medicinal amounts, CLA seems to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Diarrhea, dyspepsia, flatulence, loose stools, and nausea.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare) :
Orally: Cases of hepatotoxicity have been reported.

Cardiovascular ...Some preliminary clinical research suggests that the t10,c12 isomer of CLA can decrease high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels (2821). This isomer of CLA, as well as a mixture of CLA isomers, seems to increase plasma triglyceride levels, the ratio of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol to HDL cholesterol, and the ratio of total cholesterol to HDL cholesterol (45148,45468), although not all research has identified these effects (107475).
A meta-analysis of 6 randomized, controlled trials shows that administration of CLA in individuals who are overweight or obese significantly increases lipoprotein (a) levels, a value associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Subgroup analyses suggest this increase is more prominent in trials that are longer than 6 months in duration and with CLA doses of at least 3.5 grams daily (107475).

Endocrine ...Orally, CLA has been shown to increase insulin resistance and glucose concentrations, as well as decrease insulin sensitivity in some patients, including obese individuals or patients with type 2 diabetes (2821,13026,45145,45152,45513). Some evidence suggests that this effect is isomer-specific and occurs with only the t10,c12 isomer (2821,13026), while other evidence shows that decreased insulin sensitivity may also occur with the c9,t11 isomer or with a 50:50 mixture of c9,t11 and t10,c12 isomers (45145,45152).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, the most common adverse effect reported with CLA is gastrointestinal upset including diarrhea, constipation, nausea, loose stools, dyspepsia, bloating, and flatulence (3153,4947,45280,45705,45730,111056). Esophageal irritation was reported in one patient who bit open and swallowed a capsule containing CLA (45577).

Hepatic ...Orally, clinical research shows that CLA 3 grams daily for 12 weeks does not affect liver outcome measures (105809). However, there are at least two case reports of hepatotoxicity. Asthenia, jaundice, and pruritus were reported in a 46-year-old female who consumed CLA for two weeks. Abnormal liver enzyme levels returned to normal following discontinuation of CLA supplementation (45483). Hepatotoxicity, presenting as fulminant hepatitis and characterized by anorexia, nausea, jaundice, choluria, and hepatic encephalopathy requiring liver transplantation has also been reported in a 63-year-old female taking a CLA-containing weight-loss supplement for one month (91589).

Musculoskeletal ...Orally, CLA has been reported to cause back ache in one individual in one clinical trial (45787).

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, CLA may cause headache or fatigue (3153,45787). In one case report, a 50-year-old female presented with headache and subarachnoid hemorrhage due to reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS) after taking a combination product containing green tea, L-carnitine, and CLA for one week. At 28 days after discontinuation of the combination product and surgery, angiography showed complete regression of vascular restrictions (97007). It is unclear if this adverse effect was due to CLA, another ingredient in the product, or a combination of ingredients.

Other ...Orally, CLA has been reported to cause halitosis in one patient in one clinical trial (45839).

DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID (DHA) (Docosahexaenoic Acid)

General ...Orally, DHA is generally well-tolerated when used in doses up to 3 grams daily. Intravenously, DHA seems to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Belching, fishy aftertaste, loose stools, and nausea.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Some case reports raise concerns about increased risk of bleeding with high doses of fish oil containing DHA.

Cardiovascular ...Orally, DHA might increase low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels. However, this appears to be primarily due to increases in the large buoyant type of LDL particles. The small, dense type of LDL particles are reduced (6143,48013,48078,48083,48174,48338).

Dermatologic ...Orally, DHA has been associated with one report of rash and one report of warmth on hands in one clinical study (48217). In another clinical study, two patients taking DHA 400 mg daily reported acne (11333). In another clinical study, one parent of a pediatric patient treated with DHA 600 mg daily reported increased hair loss beginning 6 weeks after completion of supplementation (90699). It is unclear if this adverse effect is specifically related to DHA intake.

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, DHA may cause gastrointestinal upset, fishy aftertaste, belching, flatulence, heartburn, loose stools, anorexia, and dry mouth (10869,11333,48217,109218). There is also some evidence that increased serum levels of DHA might be associated with an increased risk for atrophic gastritis associated with Helicobacter pylori infection, but further research is needed to clarify this finding (8709).
For fish oils containing EPA and DHA, side effects can include fishy taste, belching, nausea, and loose stools (1009,1313,8699,10007). Three people with pre-existing familial adenomatous polyposis were diagnosed with malignant lesions during the course of long-term fish oil use (999).

Genitourinary ...Orally, one patient in one clinical study who was taking DHA 1, 2, or 4 grams daily (specific dose unclear) reported decreased libido (48217).

Hematologic ...Orally, DHA might cause nose bleeds, but this is uncommon. Onset of severe nose bleeds has been reported in one clinical study in one child who took DHA 600 mg daily (98542). Although most clinical research shows that DHA does not affect blood clotting when taken alone (11112,11113,48020), there is some concern that taking high doses of oils providing DHA along with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) might decrease blood coagulation and increase the risk of bleeding (1313). The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that consumers limit intake of EPA plus DHA to 3 grams daily, with no more than 2 grams daily from a dietary supplement (95739).

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, DHA may cause dizziness, headache, insomnia, fatigue, and anxiety (10869,11333,48217). In one clinical study, one parent of a pediatric patient treated with DHA 600 mg daily reported increased disruptive behavior in the child (90699).

Ocular/Otic ...Orally, DHA may cause watery eyes but results are inconsistent. In one clinical study, five of 167 infants fed formula containing 0.32% or 0.64% DHA experienced watery eyes. However, none of the infants fed formula containing 0.96% DHA experienced watery eyes (90670). In one clinical study, one patient taking DHA 400 mg daily experienced an ear infection. It is unclear if this event was related to DHA supplementation.

Oncologic ...Orally, DHA may increase the risk of prostate cancer, but additional research is needed to clarify this finding. A meta-analysis of data from observational studies found that higher dietary intake of DHA is associated with a non-linear increased risk of prostate cancer (90677). It is unclear if supplemental DHA intake is associated with increased risk of prostate cancer.

Pulmonary/Respiratory ...Orally, worsened asthma symptoms were reported by one parent of one patient with asthma taking DHA 600 mg daily (90699).

EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID (EPA) (Eicosapentaenoic Acid)

General ...Orally, prescription EPA or EPA derived from fish oil is generally well tolerated in doses of up to 3 grams daily. Agal oil providing EPA seems to be well tolerated. Doses of EPA greater than 3 grams daily are possibly unsafe.
Intravenously, fish oil or omega-3 fatty acid lipid emulsions containing EPA seem to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Belching, diarrhea, epigastric discomfort, fishy aftertaste, and nausea.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Some case reports raise concerns about increased risk of bleeding with high doses.

Cardiovascular ...Orally, taking the prescription ethyl-EPA product (Vascepa, Amarin) 4 grams daily has been linked to a 1% greater risk of atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter that required hospitalization when compared with placebo (101286).

Dermatologic ...Orally, reported side effects of EPA have included skin rash and itching (15497).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, reported side effects of EPA have included nausea, diarrhea, and epigastric discomfort (15497,103314,110365,110366). For fish oils containing EPA and docosahexaenoic acid, side effects can include fishy taste, belching, nausea, and loose stools (10007).

Hematologic ...Orally, reported side effects of EPA, as well as fish oils containing EPA and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), have included nosebleed (10007,15497). There is some concern that taking high doses of oils providing EPA along with DHA might decrease blood coagulation and increase the risk of bleeding (1313). To reduce this risk, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that consumers limit intake of EPA plus DHA to 3 grams daily, with no more than 2 grams daily from a dietary supplement (95739). The prescription ethyl-EPA product (Vascepa, Amarin) 4 grams daily has been linked to bleeding in 12% of patients, compared with 10% in the placebo group. Serious bleeding occurred in 3% of the Vascepa group compared to 2% in the placebo group (101286).

Immunologic ...There is preliminary evidence that the EPA in fish oil decreases natural killer (NK) cell activity. Due to this effect, there is concern that increased intake of EPA might have some adverse immunologic effects and possibly increase the risk for viral infections and some cancers (8718).

Musculoskeletal ...Orally, EPA may cause musculoskeletal pain in some patients, although results from clinical research are conflicting. In one clinical study, a higher percentage of patients treated with ethyl-EPA 2 or 4 grams daily experienced joint pain compared to placebo (3.4% and 1.7% vs 0.4%, respectively) (91409). However, in another study, slightly fewer patients taking ethyl-EPA 1.8 grams daily experienced joint, lumbar, or muscle pain compared to placebo (1.6% vs 2.0%, respectively) (15497).

Oncologic ...Three people with pre-existing familial adenomatous polyposis have been diagnosed with malignant lesions during the course of long-term high-docosahexaenoic acid fish oil use (999); however, it is unclear if fish oil, or more specifically EPA, was the cause.

GAMMA-LINOLENIC ACID (GLA) (Gamma-Linolenic Acid)

General ...Orally, GLA seems to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Mild gastrointestinal adverse effects, including belching, bloating, diarrhea, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea, and vomiting.

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, GLA may cause mild gastrointestinal effects such as dyspepsia, nausea, bloating, vomiting, soft stools, diarrhea, flatulence, and belching (7701,7702,8926,107927).

Hematologic ...Orally, GLA might prolong bleeding time (1979).

MEDIUM CHAIN TRIGLYCERIDES (MCTs) (MCT)

General ...Orally, MCTs can cause significant gastrointestinal upset, especially with higher doses.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Abdominal discomfort, diarrhea, essential fatty acid deficiency, intestinal gas noises, irritability, nausea, reflux, vomiting. Gastrointestinal disturbances are thought to be associated with higher doses of MCT. Since MCTs are fats, excessive consumption can result in weight gain.

Cardiovascular ...There is some concern that MCTs may further increase the risk for hypertriglyceridemia in some preterm infants due to immature lipoprotein lipase activity in these infants. A case of extremely elevated triglyceride levels of 4,736 mg/dL and associated lipemia retinalis has been reported at 43 weeks post-menstrual age (PMA) for a preterm infant born at 30 weeks' gestational age. It was discovered that the baby had been receiving MCT supplements in addition to breast milk starting at 42 weeks' PMA. MCT supplements were discontinued. One month later triglycerides were reduced to 287 mg/dL, and the retinal vasculature had a normal hue. However, at 2-month follow-up, triglyceride levels were elevated to levels higher than normal for age despite MCT discontinuation. Investigators speculated that a genetic disorder of lipid metabolism may also have contributed to the elevated triglyceride levels in addition to use of MCTs (96330).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, MCTs can cause significant gastrointestinal upset. Diarrhea is the most commonly reported side effect (11723,93737,93738,101967). Other reported side effects include vomiting, irritability, nausea, reflux, abdominal discomfort, intestinal gas noises, and essential fatty acid deficiency (11723,93738,101967). Taking MCTs with food can reduce these adverse effects (93737). Gastrointestinal disturbances are thought to be associated with higher doses of MCT, such as 85 grams (93731).

Other ...Excessive consumption of MCTs can result in weight gain. MCT oil contains 6-8.5 calories per gram. One tablespoon provides about 14 grams and about 115 calories (11724).

OLEIC ACID

General ...Orally, oleic acid generally well tolerated when used as part of oils and fats in the diet (26466,90681,94452,101821,101824,101828,101830,101838). Temporary burning in the mouth or throat has occurred in some patients (101848).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, oleic acid has caused temporary burning in the mouth or throat in some patients in one clinical study (101848).

(Read more about OLEIC ACID)

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