Tunnicliff, G. Sites of action of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB)-a neuroactive drug with abuse potential. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1997;35:581-90. View abstract.

Smith SW, Zvosec DL. Death and central nervous system depression after ingestion of 1.4-butanediol, a gamma-hydroxybutyrate-related dietary supplement. Ann Emerg Med 2000;36:S85.

Anon. Adverse events associated with ingestion of gamma-butyrolactone--Minnesota, New Mexico, and Texas, 1998-1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1999;48:137-40. View abstract.

Harrington RD, Woodward JA, Hooton TM, et al. Life-threatening interactions between HIV-1 protease inhibitors and the illicit drugs MDMA and gamma-hydroxybutyrate. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:2221-4. View abstract.

Anon. Important message for health professionals: Report serious adverse events associated with dietary supplements containing GBL, GHB or BD. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. August 25, 1999. Available at: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/mwgblghb.html

Anon. Multistate outbreak of poisonings associated with illicit use of gamma hydroxy butyrate. JAMA 1991;265:447-8.

Tunnicliff G. Significance of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in the brain. Gen Pharmacol 1992;23:1027-34. View abstract.

Carotenuto A, De Feo V, Fattorusso E, et al. The flavonoids of Allium ursinum. Phytochem 1996;41:531-6. View abstract.

FDA Talk Paper. FDA Warns About GBL-Related Products. 1999. Available at: vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/tpgbl2.html

Cash CD. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate: an overview of the pros and cons for it being a neurotransmitter and/or a useful therapeutic agent (abstract). Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1994;18:291-304. View abstract.

Maitre M. The gamma-hydroxybutyrate signaling system in brain: organization and functional implications (abstract). Prog Neurobiol 1997;51:337-61. View abstract.

Mamelak M. Gammahydroxybutyrate: an endogenous regulator of energy metabolism (abstract). Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1989;13:187-98. View abstract.

Van Cauter E, Plat L, Scharf MB, et al. Simultaneous stimulation of slow-wave sleep and growth hormone secretion by gamma-hydroxybutyrate in normal young Men (abstract). J Clin Invest 1997;100:745-53. View abstract.

Ferrara SD, Tedeschi L, Frison G, Rossi A. Fatality due to gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) and heroin intoxication. J Forensic Sci 1995;40:501-4. View abstract.

Kohrs FP, Porter WH, et al. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate intoxication and overdose. [Letter and responses]. Ann Emerg Med 1999;33:475-6.

Timby N, Eriksson A. Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate-Associated Deaths. Am J Med 2000;108:518.

Schneir AB, Ly BT, Clark RF. A case of withdrawal from the GHB precursors gamma-butyrolactone and 1,4-butanediol. J Emerg Med 2001;21:31-3.. View abstract.

Zvosec DL, Smith SW, McCutcheon JR, et al. Adverse events, including death, associated with the use of 1,4-butanediol. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:87-94.. View abstract.

Mason P, Kerns II W. Gamma Hydroxybutyric Acid (GHB) Intoxication. Acad Emerg Med 2002;9:730-39.. View abstract.

Poldrugo, F., Barker, S., Basa, M., Mallardi, F., and Snead, O. C. Ethanol potentiates the toxic effects of 1,4-butanediol. Alcohol Clin.Exp.Res 1985;9(6):493-497. View abstract.

Thai, D., Dyer, J. E., Jacob, P., and Haller, C. A. Clinical pharmacology of 1,4-butanediol and gamma-hydroxybutyrate after oral 1,4-butanediol administration to healthy volunteers. Clin.Pharmacol Ther. 2007;81(2):178-184. View abstract.

Boscolo-Berto R, Viel G, Montagnese S, Raduazzo DI, Ferrara SD, Dauvilliers Y. Narcolepsy and effectiveness of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB): a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Sleep Med Rev. 2012 Oct;16(5):431-43. View abstract.

Thai D, Dyer JE, Benowitz NL, Haller CA. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate and ethanol effects and interactions in humans. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2006 Oct;26(5):524-9. View abstract.

Weiss T, Müller D, Marti I, Happold C, Russmann S. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and topiramate--clinically relevant drug interaction suggested by a case of coma and increased plasma GHB concentration. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2013 May;69(5):1193-4. View abstract.

Government of Canada. https://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2002-359/page-17.html. Accessed November 12, 2019.

Product information for Xyrem. Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Palo Alto, CA. March 2022.

Liakoni E, Gugelmann H, Dempsey DA, et al. Butanediol conversion to gamma-hydroxybutyrate markedly reduced by the alcohol dehydrogenase blocker fomepizole. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2019;105(5):1196-203. doi: 10.1002/cpt.1306. View abstract.

Stefani M, Roberts DM. 1,4-Butanediol overdose mimicking toxic alcohol exposure. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2020;58(3):204-7. doi: 10.1080/15563650.2019.1617419. View abstract.