Vital Detox Part 2 [Discontinued] by Brenda Watson's Vital Planet

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Acne. Topical black seed extract hydrogel seems to improve acne. Details: In patients with mild to moderate acne, clinical research shows that topical application with a hydrogel containing black seed extract 0.1% twice daily for 60 days reduces the number of comedones, papules, and pupules by a large amount when compared with placebo. The overall improvement, as rated by a physician, was 78% for the black seed extract hydrogel, compared with 3% for the placebo gel (101551).
• Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). Oral black seed oil seems to reduce symptoms of allergic rhinitis over 4-8 weeks. It is unclear if black seed is beneficial long-term. Details: Clinical research shows that taking capsules containing black seed oil 0.5 mL daily for 1 month can reduce symptoms such as itching, nasal congestion, sneezing, and runny nose when compared with placebo in adults with allergic rhinitis (95989). Other preliminary clinical research shows that taking a specific product containing black seed oil 500 mg (Immerfit, Phyt-Immun) for a total dose of 40-80 mg/kg orally daily for 4-8 weeks improves patient-scored symptoms of allergic rhinitis in 81% of patients, compared to 45% of patients taking placebo (36071). More research is needed to determine if black seed is beneficial long-term and how it compares to conventional allergy medications.
• Asthma. Oral black seed seems to be beneficial for symptoms like wheezing and coughing and might improve lung function measures in patients with poor pulmonary function. Details: Some clinical research shows that taking black seed extract for 3 months can improve symptoms such as wheezing and coughing when compared with placebo in patients with moderate to severe asthma who already take conventional asthma medication (36175). Other research shows that taking black seed oil (Cuminmar, Marnys) 500 mg twice daily for 4 weeks can improve self-reported asthma control and daily functioning when compared with placebo in adults with inadequately controlled asthma despite using maintenance inhalers (95987). The effects of black seed on pulmonary function are conflicting. Some research shows that taking black seed can improve lung function measures such as forced expiratory flow (36175,36280,94490,101556), while other research shows no significant benefit (95987,101556). Doses used in studies showing benefit include ground black seed 2 grams daily for 12 weeks, black seed extract 15 mL/kg daily for 3 months, or a single dose of 50-100 mg/kg (36175,36280,94490). Differing findings may relate to pulmonary function at baseline. Taking black seed extract or black seed oil seems to improve pulmonary function in patients with abnormally low pulmonary function at baseline, but not those with predicted forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) of at least 80% (36175,95987). Also, single doses of black seed extract do not appear to improve pulmonary function as effectively as bronchodilators such as theophylline or salbutamol (36280).
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Oral black seed seems to improve lung function measures in patients with COPD using inhaled corticosteroids. Details: In middle-aged adults undergoing routine treatment with inhaled corticosteroids for COPD, clinical research shows that taking black seed oil (Amazing Herbs) 1 gram twice daily for 3 months improves pulmonary function tests by a small to moderate amount when compared with placebo (104663).
• Diabetes. Oral black seed powder in doses of at least 2 grams daily or black seed oil 1 gram daily seem to improve glucose control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Details: A meta-analysis of 4 clinical studies shows that black seed reduces glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) by 0.4%. However, analysis of 7 clinical studies suggests that black seed does not reduce fasting blood glucose (111503). One clinical study shows that taking black seed powder 1 gram twice daily for 3-12 months improves HbA1c and decreases fasting blood glucose by 17% to 26% when compared to baseline in patients with diabetes who are already using antidiabetes medications (94479,94485). These improvements were significant when compared with placebo at 3 months and 9 months, but not at 12 months (94485). Clinical research also shows that taking black seed powder 1 gram twice daily also improves levels of total cholesterol by 10% to 12% when compared with placebo in patients with diabetes (94478); a lower dose of 1 gram daily does not seem to be beneficial (94479). The effect of black seed oil has also been investigated. Clinical research shows that taking black seed oil 450 mg three times daily for 12 weeks decreases fasting blood glucose by around 14 mg/dL and HbA1c by 0.3% in patients with newly diagnosed diabetes when compared with baseline. However, these improvements were inferior to those reported in patients taking metformin 2000 mg daily (102062). Other clinical research shows that taking black seed oil 1 gram daily for 8 weeks decreases fasting blood glucose by 23.0 mg/dL and HbA1c by 0.69% from baseline. These changes, as well as reductions in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, triglycerides, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure were significant when compared with placebo (110269). Other clinical research also shows that taking black seed oil 1 gram daily for 8 weeks reduces fasting blood glucose, triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels when compared with placebo. However, baseline levels for each of these parameters were higher in the treatment group when compared with the placebo group, raising concerns about the validity of these findings (101552). The black seed constituent thymoquinone has also been investigated in clinical research. Clinical research in patients with type 2 diabetes shows that taking thymoquinone 50 mg or 100 mg daily in addition to metformin 1 gram daily for 90 days increases the number of patients with HbA1c levels of less than 7.0% when compared with metformin alone. However, it is unclear if fasting blood glucose levels are further reduced (110270). Black seed has also been evaluated in combination with other ingredients. A moderate-sized clinical study in treatment-naïve adults newly diagnosed with type 2 diabetes shows that taking a combination product containing extracts of black seed 250 mg, cassia cinnamon, and ficin (NW Low-Glu) 4-5 times daily for 12 weeks reduces HbA1c by 0.6-0.8% and 2-hour postprandial glucose by 25-35 mg/dL when compared to baseline and is similarly effective to metformin. However, there were no notable improvements in fasting blood glucose, insulin resistance, or beta cell function (111710). It is unclear if these effects are due to black seed, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Helicobacter pylori. Oral black seed 2 grams daily seems to improve H. pylori eradication when used in combination with standard therapies. Details: Clinical research shows that in patients receiving quadruple therapy with metronidazole, amoxicillin, bismuth subcitrate, and omeprazole, the eradication of H. pylori occurred in 88% of patients receiving quadruple therapy plus black seed powder 1 gram twice daily for 8 weeks, compared with 55% of patients taking quadruple therapy alone. Quality of life was also improved (101555). Clinical research also shows that taking black seed powder (BioExtract Ltd) 2 grams daily along with omeprazole 40 mg daily for 4 weeks produces H. pylori eradication in 67% of patients, compared to 83% of patients taking standard triple therapy with clarithromycin, amoxicillin, and omeprazole taken for 1 week. However, this study also found that taking black seed powder 1 gram or 3 grams daily along with omeprazole was less effective than standard triple therapy (95980). The reasons for this discrepancy are unclear.
• Hyperlipidemia. Oral black seed seems to modestly improve serum lipids in patients with or without hyperlipidemia. Details: A meta-analysis of 24 moderate-quality, clinical studies in healthy adults and patients with various cardiometabolic conditions shows that taking black seed modestly reduces total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides, and increases HDL cholesterol when compared with placebo or control (114813). Interpretation of findings is limited by significant heterogeneity in results which may be due to the inclusion of different patient populations, doses or types of black seed preparations, and treatment durations. Similarly, a meta-analysis of 5 clinical studies in adults with type 2 diabetes with or without hyperlipidemia shows that taking black seed reduces total cholesterol by 17 mg/dL, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by 11 mg/dL, and triglycerides by 12 mg/dL, but does not improve high-density (HDL) lipoprotein cholesterol, when compared with a control (111503). Additionally, some preliminary clinical research shows that taking whole crushed black seed 1 gram twice daily or black seed powder 1 gram daily for 4-8 weeks reduces total cholesterol by 5% to 16%, LDL cholesterol by 8% to 27%, and triglycerides by 17% to 22% when compared to baseline in these patients; these improvements are significantly greater than changes in the placebo group (18221,94484). The effect of black seed when used in combination with statins shows conflicting results. One clinical study shows that taking black seed powder 1 gram twice daily for 6 weeks does not decrease cholesterol levels when compared with statins alone in normocholesterolemic, borderline hypercholesterolemic, or hypercholesterolemic patients (36244). Other clinical research in adults with hypercholesterolemia shows that taking whole crushed black seed 500 mg, garlic oil 250 mg, and simvastatin 10 mg daily for 8 weeks produces a larger increase in HDL cholesterol and a greater reduction in total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides when compared with simvastatin 10 mg daily alone (95985). Reasons for these conflicting results may relate to the black seed dose or formulation and the cholesterol levels of the included patients at baseline. Taking whole crushed black seed 1 gram twice daily for 8 weeks in conjunction with aerobic training does not appear to improve LDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, or triglyceride levels when compared with aerobic training alone in females with hypercholesterolemia; however, it appears to modestly increase HDL cholesterol levels (95983).
• Hypertension. Oral black seed powder and black seed oil seem to reduce blood pressure by a small amount. However, if it is unclear if taking black seed is beneficial in patients with hypertension. Details: Meta-analyses of results from 33 small clinical studies in patients with or without hypertension show that taking black seed powder 0.5-3 grams daily or black seed oil 0.1-4.2 grams daily for 4-16 weeks reduces both systolic and diastolic blood pressure by about 2-3 mmHg when compared with placebo (16437,94489,112242). Subgroup analysis suggests that black seed supplementation is most beneficial for durations of 8 weeks or less and in patients over 50 years old with a BMI of 25-30 kg/m2 (112242). Another study in the analysis that included patients with or without hypertension found that taking black seed oil 2.5 mL twice daily after meals for 8 weeks reduces systolic and diastolic blood pressure by about 11 mmHg and 10 mmHg, respectively, when compared to baseline (96929).
• Mastalgia. Topical black seed oil seems to reduce breast pain. Details: Clinical research shows that applying 2 grams of gel containing 30% black seed oil at the site of pain twice daily for two menstrual cycles reduces breast pain by about 82% when compared to baseline. This improvement is similar to diclofenac gel and significantly greater than placebo gel, which reduces pain by only 18% (94483).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Anthracycline cardiotoxicity. It is unclear if oral black seed oil reduces cardiac toxicity associated with doxorubicin treatment. Details: Preliminary clinical research in children aged 2-16 years with acute lymphoblastic leukemia shows that taking black seed oil 80 mg/kg in three divided doses daily for one week, starting with each doxorubicin infusion therapy, is protective against some, but not most, measures of cardiac toxicity associated with doxorubicin. However, it is unclear if any of these changes are associated with clinically meaningful improvements in outcome (101554).
• Atopic dermatitis (eczema). It is unclear if oral or topical black seed oil is beneficial for reducing symptoms of atopic dermatitis. Details: One small study reports that using 15% black seed oil ointment topically for 4 weeks does not improve disease severity, pruritus, or hydration in patients with atopic dermatitis (36316). Other preliminary clinical research shows that taking a specific product containing black seed oil 500 mg (Immerfit, Phyt-Immun) for a total dose of 40-80 mg/kg daily for 4-8 weeks improves subjective patient-scored symptoms of atopic dermatitis in 50% of patients when compared to baseline (36071).
• Autoimmune thyroiditis. It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for patients with autoimmune thyroiditis. Details: Clinical research in patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis shows that taking black seed powder 2 grams daily for 8 weeks increases thyroid stimulating hormone levels by 36% and anti-thyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO) antibody levels by 50% when compared to baseline; these improvements are significant when compared with placebo. However, black seed powder does not improve thyroxine or triiodothyronine levels when compared with placebo (94481).
• Cancer. Although there is interest in using oral black seed for cancer, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black seed for this condition.
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for patients with coronary artery disease. Details: A small clinical trial shows that taking black seed oil 2 grams daily for 8 weeks reduces systolic and diastolic blood pressure by 9.52 mm Hg and 8.26 mm Hg, respectively, when compared with placebo. Fasting blood glucose, body mass index, and waist and hip circumferences were also modestly reduced. There was no effect on other glycemic indices. There was also no effect on blood lipids; however, most patients were taking statins (110276).
• Chemotherapy-induced lymphocytopenia. It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for preventing febrile neutropenia. Details: Preliminary clinical research in children undergoing chemotherapy for brain tumors shows that taking whole or ground black seed 5 grams daily as part of the diet for 3-9 months of chemotherapy reduces the incidence of febrile neutropenia episodes by 88% when compared with placebo. To prevent one case of febrile neutropenia, six patients would need to be treated with black seed. The duration of hospital stay was also reduced by 2.5 days when compared with placebo (96931).
• Chemotherapy-induced phlebitis. It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for reducing the severity of phlebitis in patients receiving intravenous chemotherapy. Details: Preliminary clinical research in cancer patients receiving intravenous chemotherapy shows that applying 5 drops of black seed oil around the peripheral vein catheter twice daily for 3 days decreases phlebitis severity and reduces the relative risk of phlebitis at 72 hours by 35% when compared with no treatment. These results suggest that for every 3 patients treated with black seed oil for 3 days, one additional case of phlebitis will be prevented (102060).
• Chronic kidney disease (CKD). It is unclear if oral black seed oil is beneficial for patients with CKD. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with stages 3 and 4 CKD shows that taking black seed oil (Kalonji oil, Mohammedia products) 2.5 mL once daily for 12 weeks as add-on therapy with alpha-keto analogues of essential amino acids improves measures of kidney function by a small amount when compared with taking the alpha-keto analogues alone (101550).
• Cognitive function. Oral black seed might improve some measures of memory or cognitive function. Details: Clinical research in a small group of adolescent males shows that taking crushed black seed 500 mg daily for 4 weeks improves some measures of short-term or long-term recall when compared with placebo (96915). Other clinical research in a small group of middle-aged men shows that taking black seed 500 mg twice daily for 9 weeks improves some measures of memory, attention, and cognitive function when compared with placebo (96928). The improvements in both studies appear to be modest, so the clinical significance is unclear.
• Constipation. Although there is interest in using oral black seed for constipation, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black seed for this condition.
• Contraception. Although there is interest in using oral black seed for contraception, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black seed for this purpose.
• Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for patients with COVID-19. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with mild COVID-19 shows that taking black seed oil (Marnys Cuminmar) 500 mg twice daily for 10 days results in recovery by day 14, defined as freedom of symptoms lasting three days, in 62% of patients, compared with 36% of those patients not given black seed oil. Also, the duration to recovery was reduced by 1.6 days (110267). Preliminary clinical research in patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 shows that taking black seed (Baraka, Pharco Pharmaceuticals, Cairo, Egypt) 900 mg twice daily for 14 days modestly reduces the severity of some symptoms, including cough, diarrhea, fatigue, and pharyngitis, as well as the percentage of patients with viral positivity at day 7, when compared with standard care alone. Similar findings occurred when black seed was taken with vitamin D3 (Davalindi, Medical Union Pharma, Cairo, Egypt) 2,000 IU daily (110265). These studies are limited by a lack of placebo and blinding. A meta-analysis of 3 studies in patients with COVID-19 shows that taking black seed 40-80 mg/kg for 13-14 days or 500 mg twice daily for 7 days reduces the odds of mortality by 78% relative to patients with COVID-19 who did not use black seed (112243). In contrast to these findings, clinical research in patients with mild or asymptomatic COVID-19 does not show that taking black seed for 10 days has beneficial effects on symptoms or inflammatory markers when compared with charcoal as control. The black seed form in this study varied between whole seeds and powder, as well as the number (two to nine) of capsules taken in divided doses daily (110271). Black seed oil has also been investigated in combination with other compounds. Preliminary clinical research in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19 given standard care shows that taking black seed powder 80 mg/kg daily in combination with raw honey 1 gram/kg daily for 13 days reduces the time to alleviate symptoms by approximately 50%, and the time to clear virus by about 35%, when compared with placebo capsules and no honey. In patients with moderate symptoms, 63.6% had resumed normal activity within 6 days when compared with 10.9% of those taking placebo. In patients with severe symptoms, 50% were discharged from hospital by day 6 compared with 2.8% of those taking placebo, and the mortality rate was reduced by approximately 79% (110261). It is not clear if any beneficial effects are due to black seed, honey, or the combination.
• Diarrhea. Although there is interest in using oral black seed for diarrhea, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black seed for this condition.
• Dysmenorrhea. It is unclear if topical black seed oil reduces menstrual pain. Details: Clinical research shows that topical application of black seed oil (Barij Essence Company) 1-2 drops to the fontanel lobe of the head each night for up to 8 days, starting three days before menstruation, for three menstrual cycles modestly reduces menstrual pain when compared with olive oil (104662). It is unclear if any benefits are clinically significant.
• Dyspepsia. Oral black seed oil has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research shows that taking a 1:1:1 mixture of a black seed oil, honey, and water orally for 2 months improves overall symptoms of dyspepsia by approximately 43%, compared to only 10% in the placebo group (94487).
• Epilepsy. It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for patients with epilepsy. Details: Some preliminary clinical research in children aged 13 months to 13 years with epilepsy shows that taking black seed extract 40 mg/kg every 8 hours for 4 weeks reduces the frequency of seizures in 65% of, compared to only 20% of patients taking placebo (36180). Other preliminary clinical research in children 2-16 years of age with epilepsy shows that taking black seed oil 40-80 mg/kg daily does not reduce seizure frequency or severity when compared with placebo (94491). It is possible that there is a constituent found in the extract, and absent in the oil, that is responsible for any anti-seizure effects of black seed.
• Gingivitis. It is unclear if topical black seed is beneficial for patients with gingivitis. Details: In patients with moderate to severe gingivitis, preliminary clinical research shows that topical application of black seed extract for three days reduces gingival swelling and redness by a moderate amount, and plaque by a small amount, when compared to baseline. However, it is less effective than scaling and root planing (104664).
• Hemorrhoids. Although there is interest in using oral black seed for hemorrhoids, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black seed for this condition.
• Hepatitis C. It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for patients with hepatitis C. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking black seed oil (Baraka, Pharco Pharmaceuticals) 450 mg three times daily for 3 months reduces hepatitis C viral load in 67% of patients, improves lower limb edema, and modestly increases total protein and albumin levels when compared to baseline; however, no improvement is seen in Child-Pugh score or other measures of liver function, including bilirubin, liver enzymes, or INR (95986). The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a control group.
• HIV/AIDS. Although there is interest in using oral black seed for HIV/AIDS, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black seed for this condition.
• Impaired glucose tolerance (prediabetes). It is unclear if oral black seed oil is beneficial for patients with prediabetes. Details: Preliminary clinical research in obese patients with prediabetes shows that taking black seed oil (Baraka450; Pharco Pharmaceutical Company) 450 mg twice daily for 6 months improves most anthropometric, lipid, and glycemic parameters when compared with baseline. Also, most improvements are similar to changes following the use of metformin 500 mg twice daily or following a controlled diet and exercise regimen (110275).
• Influenza. Although there is interest in using oral black seed for influenza, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black seed for this condition.
• Insomnia. It is unclear if oral black seed oil is beneficial for patients with insomnia. Details: A small clinical study in healthy adults with self-reported sleep problems shows that taking a specific black seed oil extract product containing 5% thymoquinone (BlaQmax, Akay Natural Ingredients) 200 mg daily before bedtime for 90 days increases sleep quality, latency, duration, and efficiency and reduces sleep disturbances and daytime dysfunction when compared with placebo. Black seed oil also improves biomarkers of sleep as shown by increased salivary melatonin and decreased orexin A (112244).
• Lichen planus. It is unclear if topical black seed oil is beneficial for patients with oral lichen planus. Details: Clinical research in patients with oral lichen planus shows that topical application with cream containing black seed oil (Greenish Baraka black seed oil, Greenish India Pvt. Ltd., Chennai) 75% twice daily after meals for 45 days is as effective as gel containing clobetasol propionate 0.05% for reducing lesion size and burning severity (110263). Similarly, a very small, open-label, non-randomized intervention in patients with oral lichen planus shows that topical application of a mucoadhesive patch containing black seed extract 10% three times daily for 4 weeks is as effective as a triamcinolone acetonide 0.1% patch for reducing pain and burning intensity and lesion severity (114815). Both studies are limited by the lack of inclusion of a placebo-controlled group.
• Male infertility. It is unclear if oral black seed oil is beneficial for male infertility. Details: Clinical research shows that taking black seed oil 2.5 mL twice daily for 2 months improves sperm count by 40%, sperm morphology by 32%, and sperm motility by 13% when compared with placebo in infertile males (94486).
• Meniere disease. It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for patients with Meniere disease. Details: A very small clinical study in adults with Meniere disease shows that taking black seed oil 1 gram daily for 3 months does not improve hearing threshold, tinnitus severity, or vertigo when compared with placebo (112245).
• Menopausal symptoms. Oral black seed has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. It is unclear if topical black seed oil is beneficial for menopausal symptoms. Details: Preliminary clinical research in postmenopausal females shows that taking a combination of black seed and vitex agnus-castus daily for 8 weeks, in combination with citalopram 20 mg, improves vasomotor, psychosocial, and physical symptoms of menopause when compared with placebo and citalopram (100325). It is not clear if these effects are due to black seed, vitex agnus-castus, or the combination. Clinical research in postmenopausal females shows that topical application with 2-3 drops of black seed oil (Barij Essence Pharmaceutical Company, Kashan, Iran) on the lower abdomen twice daily for 8 weeks does not improve sexual function or quality of life related to menopause when compared with placebo (110262).
• Metabolic syndrome. It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for patients with metabolic syndrome. Details: Clinical research in patients with metabolic syndrome after menopause shows that taking black seed extract 500 mg daily for 8 weeks improves levels of fasting blood sugar by 23%, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by 12%, and triglycerides by 8% over baseline. These changes were significant when compared with placebo. However, taking black seed extract did not improve anthropometric measures when compared with placebo (101549). In addition, preliminary clinical research in patients with metabolic syndrome shows that taking a specific black seed oil product (Mohammedia Products, Hyderabad) 2.5 mL twice daily for 6 weeks decreases total cholesterol by 59%, LDL cholesterol by 50%, and fasting blood glucose by 58% over placebo (36262). The effects of this black seed oil product on other important parameters of metabolic syndrome, such as weight and blood pressure, were not reported in this study. In contrast, other clinical research shows that taking bread providing black seed powder 3 grams daily for 2 months does not have a significant effect on lipid profiles in patients with metabolic syndrome. Weight and waist circumference were not reported (104667).
• Methotrexate toxicity. It is unclear if oral black seed oil is beneficial for reducing toxicity associated with methotrexate treatment. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking black seed oil (Baraka, Pharco Pharmaceuticals) 80 mg/kg orally in three divided doses daily for 1 week after each methotrexate dose prevents elevations in bilirubin and liver function enzymes when compared with placebo in children aged 4-13 years with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (95984).
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Research suggests that oral black seed or black seed oil modestly improves some metabolic and liver health parameters in patients with NAFLD. However, some studies are small, and research related to measures of steatosis, including liver biopsy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), is needed. Details: Clinical research in adults with NAFLD shows that taking black seed oil 2.5 mL twice daily for 3 months, or 1000 mg (Barij Essence Co., Iran) daily for 8 weeks, modestly increases high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels and reduces levels of liver function enzymes, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and triglycerides when compared with placebo (100322,110282). These studies also show that taking black seed oil also modestly improves levels of fasting blood glucose (110282) and steatosis grade as measured by ultrasound (100322). In one study, both black seed oil capsule and placebo capsule also contained honey and water (100322). However, taking black seed oil does not seem to improve insulin levels (110282). The effect of black seed oil on blood pressure has also been investigated. Clinical research shows that taking black seed oil (Barij Black Seed Oil, Barij Essence Pharmaceutical Company, Kashan, Iran) 1000 mg daily for 8 weeks does not reduce systolic or diastolic blood pressure when compared with placebo (110274,110282). Black seed has also been investigated in small clinical trials in adults with NAFLD. One trial shows that taking black seed 2 grams daily for 12 weeks reduces glucose and insulin levels, improves measures of insulin sensitivity and resistance, and reduces hepatic steatosis percentage when compared with placebo. However, there was no improvement in fibrosis scores, steatosis grades, and levels of lipids and liver function enzymes (102061). Another trial shows that using the same dose of black seed powder results in large reductions in body weight and body mass index (BMI), as well as liver enzymes, when compared with placebo. Also, 57.1% of patients taking black seed had normal fatty liver grading on abdominal ultrasound, compared with 6% of those taking placebo (110268). The reasons for these disparate results are unclear. However, it is possible the studies were underpowered to detect differences in secondary outcomes. More research is needed using gold standard measures of steatosis, including liver biopsy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
• Obesity. It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for increasing weight loss. Details: Meta-analyses of preliminary clinical research show that taking black seed oil 3-5 grams daily, black seed powder 0.1-3 grams daily, or black seed extract 100-200 mg daily for up to 13 weeks reduces body weight by about 2-4 kg and body mass index (BMI) by 0.85-1.2 kg/m2 when compared with placebo. It is unclear if these reductions are clinically significant. In addition, most studies in these meta-analyses do not involve patients with a BMI over 25 kg/m2 (96926,98815,111503). Although some individual research shows that taking black seed powder 2 grams or black seed oil 3 grams daily for 8 weeks does not reduce BMI in overweight females who are also exercising or following a low-calorie diet (95983,96927), most individual studies show that black seed or black seed oil reduces body weight and waist circumference (95730,96927,104661,110269). One study shows that black seed has a moderate effect on weight loss, BMI, and waist circumference, and a small effect on total and visceral fat mass (104661). These studies have used black seed powder 1.5 grams twice daily for 3 months or black seed oil 2 or 3 grams daily for 8 weeks (95730,96927,104661). Reasons for the discrepancies may relate to concomitant use with dieting or exercise. It is unclear if taking black seed oil improves the lipid profile of individuals with a BMI of at least 25 kg/m2. One small clinical study shows that taking black seed oil 2 grams daily for 8 weeks has a small to moderate effect on levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol when compared with placebo (104666). However, another study shows that although taking black seed oil 3 grams daily for 8 weeks reduces triglyceride levels more than placebo, there is no effect on HDL or LDL cholesterol levels (96927).
• Opioid withdrawal. It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for reducing symptoms of opioid withdrawal. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking black seed powder 500 mg by mouth three times daily for 12 days decreases symptoms of opioid withdrawal by 70% to 77% when compared to baseline (36239). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Oral submucous fibrosis. It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for oral submucous fibrosis. Details: A small clinical study in patients with oral submucous fibrosis shows that taking black seed 1000 mg 3 times daily for 3 months increases mouth opening by 14%, cheek flexibility by 44%, tongue protrusion by 9%, and reduces burning sensations by 79% when compared to baseline, but not when compared with a combination product containing turmeric and black pepper (114880). The validity of this study is limited by the lack of a placebo group.
• Osteoarthritis. It is unclear if topical black seed oil is beneficial for knee osteoarthritis. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that applying black seed oil 1 mL to the knee by massaging into the skin for 5 minutes three times daily for 3 weeks reduces pain when compared to baseline and produces a larger reduction in pain than acetaminophen 325 mg three times daily for 3 weeks (95981). Other clinical research shows that applying approximately 10 mL of black seed oil to the knees three times weekly for 1 month reduces pain severity when compared to baseline (98814). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a control group.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for PCOS. Details: A moderate-sized clinical study in adolescents with PCOS shows that taking black seed 1000 mg daily for 16 weeks reduces ovarian volume, testosterone and luteinizing hormone levels, hirsutism, and menstrual irregularities when compared with oral medroxyprogesterone 10 mg daily on menstrual cycle days 14 to 23 (114814). The validity of this study is limited by poor methodology, including results presented only using a per-protocol analysis.
• Psoriasis. Although there is interest in using topical black seed for psoriasis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black seed for this condition.
• Radiation dermatitis. It is unclear if topical black seed is beneficial for preventing dermatitis caused by radiotherapy. Details: Clinical research in breast cancer patients undergoing radiation treatment shows that applying a gel containing black seed extract providing thymoquinone 0.01% twice daily delays the incidence of radiation dermatitis and the onset of moist desquamation by 2-6 days when compared with placebo gel. However, there was no effect on the quality of life related to skin condition (101557).
• Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). It is unclear if topical black seed is beneficial for RA. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking a specific brand of black seed oil (Nigellar, Kahira Pharmaceutical and Chemical Industries Company) 500 mg twice daily for one month improves symptoms of RA, such as pain, morning stiffness, and disease severity, when compared with placebo in patients who are already taking methotrexate (94482).
• Senile rhinitis. It is unclear if topical black seed is beneficial for patients with senile rhinitis. Details: The elderly population is particularly susceptible to symptoms of nasal dryness and irritation due to a reduction in mucus production. Preliminary clinical research shows that black seed oil given as 3 sprays into each nostril three times daily for 2 weeks can modestly improve symptoms of nasal dryness, obstruction, and crusting in this population when compared with sodium chloride nasal spray; however, there is no improvement in burning, itching, or nasal mucociliary clearance (95988).
• Stress. It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for patients with stress. Details: A small clinical study in healthy adults with self-reported stress shows that taking a specific black seed oil extract product containing 5% thymoquinone (BlaQmax, Akay Natural Ingredients) 200 mg daily before bedtime for 90 days reduces measures of perceived stress and salivary cortisol levels when compared with placebo (112244).
• Tonsillopharyngitis. Oral black seed has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that the combination of chanca piedra 50 mg and black seed 360 mg, taken orally three times daily for 7 days, may relieve pain in patients with tonsillopharyngitis when compared with placebo (36199).
• Ulcerative colitis. It is unclear if oral black seed is beneficial for patients with ulcerative colitis. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with mild to moderate ulcerative colitis shows that taking black seed powder 2000 mg daily for 6 weeks does not improve disease activity scores or symptoms of ulcerative colitis when compared with placebo (100323).
• Urinary incontinence. It is unclear if topical black seed oil is beneficial for patients with urinary incontinence. Details: Clinical research in postmenopausal females with urinary incontinence shows that topical application with 2-3 drops of black seed oil (Barij Essence Pharmaceutical Company, Kashan, Iran) on the lower abdomen twice daily for 8 weeks modestly improves symptoms of mixed urinary incontinence, as well as related quality of life, when compared to placebo. However, there was no beneficial effect of topical black seed oil on stress incontinence, urge incontinence, or severity of symptoms (110262).
• Vaginal candidiasis. Although there is interest in using intravaginal black seed for vaginal fungal infections, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black seed for this condition.
• Vitiligo. It is unclear if topical black seed oil is beneficial for patients with vitiligo. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with vitiligo shows that applying a cream containing black seed oil to the skin twice daily for 6 months improves skin pigmentation. This cream induced repigmentation of 50% or more in around 44% of patients with facial or hand involvement and 88% of patients with genital region involvement (102064). The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a comparator group. More evidence is needed to rate black seed for these uses.

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POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). Clove mouthwash might reduce the risk of acquiring pneumonia in patients on mechanical ventilation. Details: A large clinical trial in adults in the intensive care unit on mechanical ventilation shows that administration of a clove extract 6.66% mouthwash, 15 mL twice daily for 5 days, results in a 2-fold lower incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia when compared with chlorhexidine mouthwash (112151).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Alveolar osteitis. Although there has been interest in using topical clove for alveolar osteitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of clove for this purpose.
• Anal fissures. It is unclear if topical clove oil is beneficial in patients with anal fissures. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with chronic anal fissures shows that applying clove oil 1% cream for 6 weeks heals fissures in 60% of patients by the 3-month follow-up, compared with only 12% of patients who used topical lidocaine 5% cream and stool softeners (43487).
• Cough. Although there has been interest in using oral clove for cough, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of clove for this purpose.
• Dental plaque. Topical clove has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that using a specific toothpaste (Sudantha, Link Natural Products Ltd.) containing a combination of clove, Acacia chundra Willd., malabar nut, bullet wood tree, black pepper, Indian beech, gall oak, Terminalia, and ginger twice daily for 12 weeks can reduce dental plaque, bleeding, and bacteria counts in the mouth when compared with placebo (43570). Other clinical research shows that administration of a mouth rinse containing clove, tea tree oil, and basil 10 mL twice daily for 21 days is as effective as a commercially available mouth rinse containing thymol, eucalyptol, menthol, and methyl salicylate in reducing dental plaque and gum inflammation (92160). It is unclear whether clove, another ingredient, or a combination of these ingredients is responsible for these effects.
• Diarrhea. Although there has been interest in using oral clove for diarrhea, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of clove for this purpose.
• Dyspepsia. Although there has been interest in using oral clove for dyspepsia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of clove for this purpose.
• Flatulence. Although there has been interest in using oral clove for flatulence, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of clove for this purpose.
• Gingivitis. Although there has been interest in using topical clove for gingivitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of clove for this purpose.
• Halitosis. Although there has been interest in using oral clove for halitosis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of clove for this purpose.
• Hangover. It is unclear if oral clove flower extract is beneficial for reducing hangover severity. Details: Preliminary clinical research in a very small number of healthy males with a history of hangovers shows that taking a clove flower bud polyphenol extract 250 mg prior to drinking brandy (42.8% alcohol) decreases hangover severity scores by around 55% when compared with placebo (100597).
• Hyperhidrosis. It is unclear if topical clove oil is beneficial in patients with hyperhidrosis. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with hyperhidrosis of the palms shows that topical application of clove oil 45% in liposome base twice daily for 2 weeks improves hyperhidrosis severity and decreases the rate of sweating by around 34% when compared with a saline control (100596). The validity of these findings is limited by a lack of subject randomization.
• Impaired glucose tolerance (prediabetes). It is unclear if oral clove flower extract is beneficial in patients with prediabetes. Details: Preliminary clinical research in a very small number of patients with prediabetes shows that taking a polyphenolic extract from clove flower buds 250 mg daily for 30 days decreases pre-prandial plasma glucose by 14 mg/dL and postprandial plasma glucose by 40 mg/dL when compared to baseline (100595). The validity of these findings is limited by the very small size of the study and the lack of a control group.
• Mosquito repellent. Small clinical studies suggest that topical clove oil may repel mosquitos for up to 4-5 hours. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that topical application of undiluted clove oil can repel 100% of mosquitoes for up to 4 hours (43427). Other preliminary research shows that topical application of gel containing clove oil 20% can repel 86% to 97% of mosquitoes for 5 hours (43411).
• Nausea and vomiting. Although there has been interest in using oral clove for nausea and vomiting, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of clove for this purpose.
• Oral mucositis. Although there has been interest in using topical clove for oral mucositis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of clove for this purpose.
• Pain (acute). It is unclear if topical clove is beneficial in patients with acute pain. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that topical application of a gel containing ground cloves, applied as 4 grams of gel for 5 minutes prior to dental anesthesia injection, can reduce needle stick pain when compared with placebo. The effect of the clove gel on pain seems to be comparable to benzocaine 20% gel (43448).
• Premature ejaculation. Topical clove has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that administration of a multi-ingredient cream preparation (SS Cream) containing clove flower, Panax ginseng root, Angelica root, Cistanches deserticola, Zanthoxyl species, Torlidis seed, Asiasari root, cinnamon bark, and toad venom to the glans penis, one hour prior to intercourse and washed off immediately before intercourse, increases ejaculatory latency time by over 4-fold when compared with placebo in adults with premature ejaculation (2537). It is unclear whether clove, another ingredient, or a combination of these ingredients is responsible for these effects.
• Pruritus. There is limited evidence on the topical use of clove oil in patients with chronic pruritus. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with chronic pruritus shows that applying clove oil 10% in petroleum jelly to the skin twice daily for 2 weeks reduces the daily duration of itching by 48 minutes and improves symptom severity and disability scores when compared with placebo (96950).
• Smoking cessation. Oral clove has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A moderate-sized clinical study in adults in India with a history of smoking 5 or more cigarettes daily for at least 3 years shows that taking a specific combination product containing clove 30 mg, ashwagandha, cowhage, ginger, turmeric, and other herbal extracts (Smotect, Smotect India) twice daily for 3 months reduces the number of cigarettes smoked daily and levels of alveolar carbon monoxide and carboxyhemoglobin but does not improve lung capacity when compared with placebo (112115). It is unclear if these effects are due to clove, other ingredients, or the combination. More evidence is needed to rate clove for these uses.

(Read more about CLOVE)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Acne. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for acne, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Asthma. Although there has been interest in using oral oregano for asthma, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Bronchitis. Although there has been interest in using oral oregano for bronchitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Canker sores. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for canker sores, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Cough. Although there has been interest in using oral oregano for cough, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Dandruff. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for dandruff, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Diabetes. Although there has been interest in using oral oregano for diabetes, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Dysmenorrhea. Although there has been interest in using oral oregano for dysmenorrhea, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Dyspepsia. Although there has been interest in using oral oregano for dyspepsia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Gingivitis. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for gingivitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Headache. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for headache, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Insect repellent. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil as an insect repellent, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Intestinal parasite infection. It is unclear if oral oregano is beneficial in patients with intestinal parasite infections. Details: In one small, uncontrolled study, taking a specific emulsified oregano leaf oil product (ADP, Biotics Research Corporation) 200 mg orally three times daily with meals for 6 weeks resulted in eradication of Blastocystis hominis, Entamoeba hartmanni, and Endolimax nana from the stool in 10 of 13 patients (6878). The clinical significance of this is unclear since the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) considers Entamoeba hartmanni and Endolimax nana to be non-pathogenic, while blastocystosis caused by Blastocystis hominis is usually self-limiting and does not require treatment.
• Pain (acute). Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for the relief of acute pain, including joint and muscle pain, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Psoriasis. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for psoriasis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Rhinosinusitis. Although there has been interest in using oral oregano for rhinosinusitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Seborrheic dermatitis. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for seborrheic dermatitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Tinea capitis. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for tinea capitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Tinea corporis. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for tinea corporis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Tinea pedis. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for tinea pedis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Toothache. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for toothache, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Upper respiratory tract infection (URTI). Although there has been interest in using oral oregano for URTIs, such as the common cold and influenza, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Urinary tract infections (UTIs). Although there has been interest in using oral oregano for UTIs, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Varicose veins. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for varicose veins, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Warts. Although there has been interest in using topical oregano oil for warts, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oregano for this purpose.
• Wound healing. It is unclear if topical oregano is beneficial for improving healing or preventing infections in people with skin wounds. Details: One small clinical trial shows that applying an ointment containing a 3% concentration of the water-soluble fraction of the oregano plant twice daily for 10-14 days after minor dermatological surgery might reduce infection rates and improve scar formation when compared with petrolatum ointment (67348). More evidence is needed to rate oregano for these uses.

(Read more about OREGANO)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Aging skin. It is unclear if a topical thyme flower and leaf extract reduces wrinkles. Details: A small clinical trial in healthy females aged 40-60 years with wrinkles shows that applying a specific gel preparation (ThymLec 2%, PhytoPharmaTech) containing thyme flower and leaf 1-3% extract in lecithin on the face twice daily for 60 days reduces facial wrinkles when compared with inactive control gel, but not when compared with an active comparator gel containing propanediol, ornithine, phospholipids, and glycolipids (105909).
• Alopecia areata. Topical thyme oil has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: One small clinical study shows that applying a combination of the essential oils from thyme, rosemary, lavender, and cedarwood improves hair growth in up to 44% of patients after 7 months of treatment when compared with baseline (5177). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group. Additionally, it is unclear if this effect is due to thyme, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Bronchitis. Oral thyme has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Some research has evaluated thyme in combination with cowslip. One observational study in adults and children has found that taking a specific product (Bronchipret) containing thyme and cowslip relieves symptoms of bronchitis and increases production of sputum (13557). A clinical study in patients with acute bronchitis shows that taking a similar combination extract (Bronchicum Tropfen) containing thyme and cowslip root 1 mL five times daily for 7-9 days seems to reduce severity and duration of coughing when compared with placebo (49219). Other thyme and cowslip preparations such as Bronchicum Elixir S and Bronchcium Tropfen seem to be similarly beneficial for bronchitis (49223). Thyme has also been studied in combination with other ingredients. A large clinical study in patients with acute bronchitis shows that taking a specific syrup (Bronchipret Saft, Bionorica AG) containing thyme and English ivy leaf 5.4 mL three times daily for 11 days reduces the frequency and duration of cough when compared with placebo (78152). Additionally, an observational study in children with acute bronchitis has found that taking this combination product in an age-specific dosing schema is associated with reduced bronchitis severity and coughing fits when compared to baseline (78181). However, due to the lack of a comparator group, it is unclear if these changes are due to the product or to the natural resolution of the condition.
• Colic. Although there is interest in using oral thyme for colic, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of thyme for this condition.
• Cough. Oral thyme has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A large open-label, uncontrolled study in adults with acute cough due to an upper respiratory tract infection who purchased a specific syrup (Bronchipret drops, Bionorica AG) containing thyme and English ivy leaf extracts suggests that taking this product as 2.6 mL three times daily for at least 4 days may improve patient-reported bronchitis symptom severity, cough severity, and quality of life, with over 90% of patients reporting overall satisfaction and product tolerability (110401). However, due to the lack of a comparator group, it is unclear if these changes are due to the product or the natural resolution of the condition. Additionally, the validity of these findings is limited by poor study methodology.
• Common cold. Although there is interest in using oral thyme for the common cold, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of thyme for this condition.
• Dementia. It is unclear if aromatherapy with thyme oil is beneficial in patients with dementia. Details: One very small clinical study in patients with advanced dementia shows that attaching a pad containing thyme oil to the collar area of the shirt does not reduce agitation when compared with lavender oil or unscented grapeseed oil (12213).
• Developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Oral thyme oil has only been evaluated in combination with other oils; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: One very small clinical study in children with DCD shows that taking thyme oil, in combination with evening primrose oil, fish oil, and vitamin E (Efalex, Efamol Ltd.), seems to modestly improve movement disorders when compared with baseline (5708). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group. Additionally, it is unclear if this effect is due to thyme, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Dyspepsia. Although there is interest in using oral thyme for dyspepsia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of thyme for this condition.
• Dysmenorrhea. It is unclear if drinking thyme tea is beneficial for the prevention of dysmenorrhea. Details: One small observational study in adolescents living in Ethiopia has found that drinking thyme tea is associated with a lower occurrence of primary dysmenorrhea when compared with those who did not drink thyme tea (105910).
• Halitosis. It is unclear whether oral thyme is beneficial for halitosis. Details: One small retrospective study in adults with gingival halitosis who received periodontal treatment and oral hygiene instructions suggests that drinking thyme tea twice daily for 1 week is associated with a reduction in volatile sulfur compounds, which is a marker for halitosis, when compared with chlorhexidine or oral hygiene alone (111716). However, the interpretation of this finding is limited by the lack of thyme dosing information and the narrow focus on intraoral halitosis, excluding most extraoral halitosis-associated conditions.
• Laryngitis. Although there is interest in using oral and topical thyme for laryngitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of thyme for this condition.
• Oral mucositis. Although there is interest in using oral and topical thyme for oral mucositis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of thyme for this condition.
• Tonsillitis. Although there is interest in using oral and topical thyme for tonsillitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of thyme for this condition. More evidence is needed to rate thyme for these uses.

(Read more about THYME)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts found in foods (6).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when black seed oil is used orally at doses of up to 5 mL or 5 grams daily for up to 12 weeks (36071,94486,96927,96929,98815,101550,102062,110269,110276). ...when a specific black seed oil formulation containing 5% thymoquinone (BlaQmax) is used in doses of 200 mg daily for 90 days (110264). ...when black seed powder is used orally at doses of up to 2 grams daily for up to 12 months (36239,36244,94478,94479,94485,96928,102061,110268,110271) or 3 grams daily for 3 months (114880). ...when used topically and appropriately, short-term. There is some clinical evidence that black seed oil can be safely applied as an oil 2 times daily for up to 6 months or 3 times daily for up to 1 month (95981,98814,102064,110262), as a 30% gel twice daily for approximately 2 months (94483), or as a 10% solution in a patch to oral lesions 3 times daily for 4 weeks (114815).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when black seed oil is used orally at doses of 40-80 mg/kg daily for 2-19 months in children ages 4-17 years old (36071,95984). However, the higher dose of 80 mg/kg daily has been associated with increased adverse effects such as gastrointestinal complaints when taken on an empty stomach (36071).

PREGNANCY: LIKELY UNSAFE
when used orally in amounts exceeding those found in food. Black seed may decrease or inhibit uterine contractions (241) and may have contraceptive activity (242).

LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

(Read more about BLACK SEED)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Clove, clove oil, and eugenol have Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) status for use in foods in the US (4912).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when clove oil is applied topically (272). A clove oil 1% cream has been applied to the anus with apparent safety for up to 6 weeks (43487). A liposome-based product containing clove oil 45% has been applied to the palms with apparent safety for up to 2 weeks (100596).

LIKELY UNSAFE ...when clove smoke is inhaled. Smoking clove cigarettes can cause respiratory injury (17,43599). ...when clove oil is injected intravenously. This can cause pulmonary edema, hypoxemia, and acute dyspnea (16384). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of using clove orally in medicinal amounts.

CHILDREN: LIKELY UNSAFE
when clove oil is taken orally. Ingesting 5-10 mL of undiluted clove oil has been linked to reports of coagulopathy, liver damage, and other serious side effects in infants and children up to 3 years of age (6,17,43385,43395,43419,43457,43652).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts found in foods (4912). Clove, clove oil, and eugenol have Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) status for use in foods in the US (4912). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of using clove in medicinal amounts during pregnancy and lactation; avoid using.

(Read more about CLOVE)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Oregano leaf and oil have Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of oregano when used orally in amounts greater than those found in food. There is also insufficient reliable information available about the safety of oregano when used topically. Oregano oil in concentrations of greater than 1% may be irritating when applied to mucous membranes (67348,88188).

PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in medicinal amounts. Oregano is thought to have abortifacient and emmenagogue effects (19,7122,19104).

LACTATION:
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of oregano when used in medicinal amounts; avoid amounts greater than those found in food.

(Read more about OREGANO)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used in amounts commonly found in foods. Thyme has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when thyme is used orally and appropriately in supplemental amounts. Orally, thyme, in combination with other herbs, has been used safely for up to 23 days (13557,49219,49223,78133). ...when diluted thyme oil is used topically, short-term. Diluted thyme oil has been used with apparent safety for up to 7 months (5177). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of thyme oil when used orally or when inhaled.

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used in amounts commonly found in foods. Thyme has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when thyme is used orally in medicinal amounts in combination with English ivy. Thyme has been used with apparent safety in combination with English ivy for up to 10 days (78181). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of thyme oil when used orally or topically in children.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used in amounts commonly found in foods. Thyme has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of thyme when used in medicinal amounts during pregnancy and breast-feeding; avoid using.

(Read more about THYME)

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black seed may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.  Details In vitro and animal research suggests that black seed extract can inhibit platelet aggregation and clotting, and increase bleeding time (36029,36049,36100,108701). In addition, decreased platelet counts have occurred in a human case report and in animal research (104665).

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, taking black seed with antidiabetes drugs might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.  Details Some clinical research (36262,94479,94485,101552,102062,110269,110276) and numerous animal studies (36037,36086,36150,36155,36214,110270) suggest that black seed, especially its constituent thymoquinone, can have hypoglycemic effects.

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, taking black seed with antihypertensive drugs might increase the risk of hypotension.  Details Clinical research suggests that black seed powder and oil might reduce blood pressure by 2-3 mmHg (16437,94489). In animal research, black seed modestly reduces blood pressure and concomitant use of black seed and amlodipine (Norvasc) or metoprolol (Lopressor) increased the blood pressure lowering effects of these drugs (101559,108703).

CLOPIDOGREL (Plavix) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black seed may increase the risk of bleeding if used with clopidogrel.  Details Animal research shows that taking black seed extract daily for 2 weeks prior to a single dose of clopidogrel increases maximum concentrations of clopidogrel by approximately 31% and modestly decreases oral clearance. Furthermore, bleeding time was increased by 12% (108701). This has not been shown in humans.

CNS DEPRESSANTS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concomitant use with drugs that have sedative properties may cause additive effects.  Details Animal research suggests that black seed may have CNS depressant effects (36064).

CYCLOSPORINE (Neoral, Sandimmune) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically taking black seed might reduce the levels and clinical effects of cyclosporine.  Details In animal research, black seed extract decreased the maximal levels of cyclosporine in the blood by 35.5% (94474). This has not been shown in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black seed might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP2C9.  Details In vitro research suggests that thymoquinone, a constituent of black seed, can decrease the metabolism of phenytoin by a mechanism possibly related to the inhibition of CYP2C9 (110281). The effect of black seed on CYP2C9 is unclear. This has not been shown in humans.

DIURETIC DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking black seed with diuretic drugs might increase potassium loss and the risk of hypokalemia.  Details Black seed extract has shown diuretic effects in animals, which could theoretically increase potassium loss (36026). This has not been shown in humans.

IMMUNOSUPPRESSANTS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black seed might interfere with immunosuppressive therapy.  Details Animal and in vitro studies suggest that black seed might stimulate immune function (36086,36137,36161). However, other animal studies suggest that black seed may suppress immune function (36085,36142).

PHENYTOIN (Dilantin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black seed might increase or decrease levels and effects of phenytoin.  Details In vitro research suggests that thymoquinone, a constituent of black seed, can decrease the metabolism of phenytoin (110281). This effect may be due to inhibition of cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9). However, animal research shows that black seed decreases the maximum concentration of and total systemic exposure to phenytoin by 57% and 87%, respectively. This seems to be related to increased clearance and steady state volume of distribution (110905). This interaction has not been shown in humans.

PREDNISOLONE Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically black seed might reduce plasma levels and therapeutic effects of prednisolone.  Details In animal research, oral administration of a single dose of black seed oil 15 minutes prior to oral prednisolone decreases the prednisolone maximum plasma concentration by 65% and area under the curve by 25%(114811). This has not been shown in humans.

SEROTONERGIC DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, combining serotonergic drugs with black seed might increase the risk of serotonergic side effects, including serotonin syndrome and cerebral vasoconstrictive disorders.  Details Animal research suggests that black seed can increase brain serotonin levels (36180,94488). In one case report, a 35-year-old man undergoing endoscopic surgery experienced immediate postoperative serotonin syndrome that was likely associated with the use of black seed oil 600 mg daily starting 4 days before surgery, and precipitated by the use of serotonergic pain medications, including fentanyl and oxycodone (101558). Monitor patients for signs of serotonin syndrome and other serotonergic side effects if using black seed with serotonergic drugs.

SILDENAFIL (Viagra) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black seed might reduce plasma levels and the therapeutic effects of sildenafil.  Details Animal research shows that black seed reduces the total systemic exposure to sildenafil by 43% (110898). So far, this interaction has not been reported in humans.

WARFARIN (Coumadin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black seed might increase levels of warfarin and increase the risk of bleeding.  Details In vitro research suggests that thymoquinone, a constituent of black seed, can decrease the metabolism of warfarin (110280). This effect may be due to inhibition of cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9). The effect of black seed on warfarin metabolism is unclear. This has not been shown in humans.

(Read more about BLACK SEED)

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, clove oil may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.  Details Laboratory research suggests that eugenol, a constituent of clove, has antiplatelet activity (12889,43558,43650,43654). This interaction has not been reported in humans.

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concomitant use of clove extracts with antidiabetes drugs might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.  Details Clinical and laboratory research suggest that polyphenol extracts from clove flower buds might lower blood glucose levels (100595). Dosing adjustments for insulin or oral hypoglycemic agents may be necessary when taken with clove. Monitor blood glucose levels closely.

CYTOCHROME P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concomitant use of clove may increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP1A2.  Details In vitro research shows that eugenol, the principal constituent of clove, can inhibit CYP1A2 in a dose-dependent manner, (115900). This effect has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concomitant use of clove may increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP2C9.  Details In vitro research shows that eugenol, the principal constituent of clove, inhibits CYP2C9 in a dose-dependent manner (115900). This effect has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concomitant use of clove may increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP2D6.  Details In vitro research shows that eugenol, the principal constituent of clove, can inhibit CYP2D6 in a dose-dependent manner (115900). This effect has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concomitant use of clove may increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP3A4.  Details In vitro research shows that eugenol, the principal constituent of clove, can inhibit CYP3A4 in a dose-dependent manner (115900). This effect has not been reported in humans.

IBUPROFEN (Advil, others) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, topical application of clove oil with ibuprofen might increase the absorption and side effects of topical ibuprofen.  Details Laboratory research shows that topical application of clove oil increases the absorption of topical ibuprofen (98854). This interaction has not been reported in humans.

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ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, oregano might increase the risk of bleeding when taken with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.  Details In vitro research shows that aristolochic acid isolated from oregano leaves has antithrombin activity (67164). It has also been reported that oregano oil inhibits arachidonic acid-induced, and ADP-induced, platelet aggregation (49445).

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, oregano might increase the risk for hypoglycemia when taken with antidiabetes drugs.  Details In vitro and animal research shows that oregano extracts might lower blood glucose levels (67191,67204,110122).

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ANTICHOLINERGIC DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concurrent use of anticholinergic drugs and thyme essential oil might reduce the effects of anticholinergic drugs.  Details In vitro evidence suggests that thyme essential oil and specific essential oil constituents like thymohydroquinone and carvacrol can inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) (78155). However, this effect has not been observed in humans.

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, thyme leaf extract might have additive effects with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.  Details In vitro and animal research suggests that thyme leaf extract has antiplatelet effects (13457,18335,49445). However, this effect has not been observed in humans.

CHOLINERGIC DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concurrent use of cholinergic drugs and thyme essential oil might cause additive cholinergic effects.  Details In vitro evidence suggests that thyme essential oil and specific essential oil constituents like thymohydroquinone and carvacrol can inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) (78155). However, this effect has not been observed in humans.

ESTROGENS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, thyme might competitively inhibit the effects of estrogen replacement therapy.  Details In vitro research shows that thyme has estrogen receptor-binding activity and phytoestrogen content (3701). However, this effect has not been observed in humans.

(Read more about THYME)

General ...Orally and topically, black seed seems to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Constipation, gastric burning or discomfort, nausea, and vomiting.

Dermatologic ...Orally, black seed can cause itching, but this adverse effect is rare (94481). It has also been reported to cause bullous drug eruption and maculopapular eruption (94480,100324). Topically, black seed and its oil have been reported to cause allergic contact dermatitis (36053,36296,36297,100324). Rarely, topical use of the oil has been reported to cause a rash related to drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) (110277).

Gastrointestinal ...In a clinical trial, unspecified gastrointestinal complaints occurred in 20% of patients taking black seed oil orally (36071). Gastrointestinal complaints occurred rarely in another clinical trial; however, one patient in this study was hospitalized for nausea and vomiting thought to be associated with black seed oil (110267). Gastrointestinal adverse effects to black seed have included constipation (36180), burning sensation (94487), epigastric discomfort (94479), vomiting (94491), or mild nausea (94481,94489,94491,96927,96929). Gastrointestinal adverse effects to a specific black seed oil formulation containing 5% thymoquinone (BlaQmax) have included mild cases of bloating, burping and mild diarrhea (110264).

Genitourinary ...Orally, relatively severe menstrual bleeding has occurred in one clinical trial (104661).

Hepatic ...While intake of black seed has been associated with hepatotoxicity in some animal research, other animal research has not confirmed this finding (245,95982). One case report describes hepatotoxicity, kidney injury, and rhabdomyolysis occurring in an otherwise healthy 26-year-old male after taking black seed oil 1000 mg twice daily for 1 month. The patient was hospitalized for critical care management, including hemodialysis. After 52 days in the hospital, the patient had recovered and was discharged (114812).

Immunologic ...Orally, black seed has been reported to cause bullous drug eruption and maculopapular eruption (94480,100324). Topically, black seed and its oil can cause allergic contact dermatitis (6,36053,36296,36297,100324,110266). One case of bullous drug eruption with skin detachment has been reported for a 54-year-old woman who used black seed oil orally. The eruptions resolved following treatment with clobetasol propionate 0.05%. Although this patient showed a positive skin prick test for undiluted black seed oil, the tests were negative when the oil was diluted to 10% and 1% (94480). A 28-year-old woman developed a rash following topical use of black seed oil. She was diagnosed with drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS), including enlarged lymph nodes, and required systemic corticosteroid treatment. This diagnosis was confirmed six months later following confirmation with a patch test (110277). In another case report, a 58-year-old woman developed eczematous lesions on the lower and upper eyelids after topical application of an oil containing black seed. This reaction was followed by the development of a diffuse maculopapular eruption after taking two oral capsules containing black seed oil. It is theorized that the topical application of black seed oil led to systemic sensitization prior to the use of oral black seed in this patient (100324).

Renal ...Orally, black seed might cause renal dysfunction. A case of acute renal failure thought to be related to use of black seed tablets 2-2.5 grams daily has been reported for a 62 year-old patient with diabetes (94477). Additionally, a case of acute kidney injury, rhabdomyolysis, and hepatotoxicity has been reported in an otherwise healthy 26-year-old male after taking black seed oil 1000 mg twice daily for 1 month. The patient was hospitalized for critical care management, including hemodialysis. . After 52 days in the hospital, the patient had recovered and was discharged (114812).

(Read more about BLACK SEED)

General ...Orally, clove is well tolerated when consumed as a spice; however, clove oil in doses of only 5-10 mL can be toxic in children. Topically, clove is generally well tolerated. When inhaled or used intravenously, clove may be unsafe.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Topically: Burning, contact dermatitis, dental decay, itching, mucous membrane irritation, tingling, ulcers.
Inhaled: Dental decay, hypertension, itching, tachycardia.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Liver failure, respiratory distress.
Inhaled: Pneumonitis, pulmonary edema, respiratory distress.

Cardiovascular ...Smoking clove cigarettes increases heart rate and systolic blood pressure (12892).

Dental ...Population research has found that the risk of dental decay is increased in clove cigarette smokers (43332). Repeated topical application of clove in the mouth can cause gingival damage and skin and mucous membrane irritation (4,272,512). Eugenol, a constituent of clove and a material commonly found in dentistry, has been associated with side effects including gum inflammation and irritation (43365,43373,43522).

Dermatologic ...The American Dental Association has accepted clove for professional use, but not nonprescription use, due to potential damage to soft tissue that may be induced by clove application. In clinical research, small aphthous-like ulcers appeared in the area of the mouth where clove gel was applied in four participants (43448). Skin irritation and stinging have been reported with clove oil application (43338,43626). In a 24-year-old, exposure to a clove oil spill resulted in permanent local anesthesia and anhidrosis, or lack of sweating, at the affected area (43626).

Endocrine ...A case of hypoglycemia and metabolic acidosis have been reported after administration of one teaspoon of clove oil to a seven-month-old infant (43457). A case of electrolyte imbalance following accidental ingestion by a seven-month-old has also been reported (6).

Hematologic ...A case of disseminated intravascular coagulation has been reported in a 2-year-old patient after consuming between 5-10 mL of clove oil. The patient was treated with heparin, fresh frozen plasma, protein C, factor VII, and antithrombin III. On the fifth day, the patient started to improve and made a full recovery (43652).

Hepatic ...There are three cases of hepatic failure occurring in children after ingestion of 5-10 mL of clove oil (43395,43419,43652). Liver injury also occurred in a 3-year-old male (96949). These patients were successfully treated with N-acetylcysteine. The course of liver injury seems to be milder and shorter with early N-acetylcysteine treatment (43395,43419,96949). Another patient, who also presented with disseminated intravascular coagulation, was successfully treated with heparin, fresh frozen plasma, protein C, factor VII, and antithrombin III (43652).

Immunologic ...Contact dermatitis and urticaria has been reported following topical exposure to clove oil or eugenol, a constituent of clove oil (12635,43339,43606,43346).

Neurologic/CNS ...CNS depression has been reported in a 7-month-old who was given one teaspoon of clove oil accidentally in place of mineral oil for diarrhea. The patient was successfully treated with supportive care and gastric lavage (43457). A case of confusion and inability to speak has been reported secondary to oral exposure to clove oil and alcohol. The patient required intubation and was successfully treated with thiamine and normal saline (43580). Seizure and coma have been reported in a two-year-old male after ingesting 5-10 mL of clove oil (43652).

Pulmonary/Respiratory ...Clove cigarettes have been associated with throat and chest tightness (43337), pulmonary edema (43618), and fatal aspiration pneumonitis (43599). The causative factor may be clove alone or clove along with other substances found in cigarettes. Clove cigarettes contain significant amounts of nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide and increase plasma levels of nicotine and exhaled carbon monoxide, which might cause long-term health effects similar to tobacco smoking (12892). According to the American Medical Association, inhaling clove cigarette smoke has been associated with severe lung injury in a few susceptible individuals with prodromal respiratory infection. Also, some individuals with normal respiratory tracts have apparently suffered aspiration pneumonitis as the result of a diminished gag reflex induced by a local anesthetic action of eugenol, which is volatilized into the smoke (43602).
Intravenous injection of clove oil in a 32-year-old female resulted in hypoxia, acute dyspnea, interstitial and alveolar infiltrates, and non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema. The patient was managed with supplemental oxygen and recovered over the next seven days (16384).
Occupational exposure to eugenol, a constituent of clove, has also been reported to cause asthma and rhinitis (43492).

Renal ...Proteinuria and other urinary abnormalities were observed in a seven-month-old infant given one teaspoon of clove oil accidentally in place of mineral oil for diarrhea. The patient was successfully treated with supportive care and gastric lavage (43457).

(Read more about CLOVE)

General ...Orally, oregano is well tolerated when used in amounts typically found in foods. There is currently a limited amount of information available about the safety of oregano when used in larger amounts as medicine.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Gastrointestinal upset.
Topically: Dermatitis in sensitive individuals.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Systemic allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis, in sensitive individuals.

Dermatologic ...Oregano has been reported to cause allergic contact dermatitis (46902). Topically, oregano oil in concentrations of greater than 1% has been reported to cause irritation when applied to mucous membranes (67348,88188).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, large amounts of oregano can cause gastrointestinal upset. Concentrated, non-emulsified oil of oregano can cause localized irritation of the gastrointestinal tract (6878).

Immunologic ...Systemic allergic reactions have been reported with oregano. A 45-year-old male developed pruritus, respiratory difficulty, hypotension, swelling of the lips and tongue, and facial edema after ingesting pizza seasoned with oregano. He had 2 similar episodes after ingesting foods seasoned with thyme, another member of the Lamiaceae family. He did not react to similar foods without the seasoning, and he had positive skin tests to plants of the Lamiaceae family (3705).

(Read more about OREGANO)

General ...Orally, thyme is well tolerated when used in food and seems to be well tolerated when used medicinally. Topically, thyme seems to be generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Allergic reactions, diarrhea, dizziness, headache, heartburn, nausea, or vomiting.
Topically: Contact dermatitis and skin irritation.

Dermatologic ...Topically, thyme, thyme oil, or the constituent thymol can cause contact dermatitis and skin irritation (13463,78252,78362,78384,77982,78154,78310,78313,78384). In one study of 100 patients with contact allergies, 5% were attributed to thyme oil as an allergen contained in wound dressings (78362). Toothpastes containing thymol have been associated with cheilitis and glossitis (13463).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, thyme and thyme oil may cause heartburn, nausea, vomiting, stomach upset, or diarrhea (13557,94033). In a clinical study, two patients using extracts of thyme herb and ivy leaves experienced temporary stomach ache and mild nausea (78181).
Intravaginally, cream containing thyme and garlic has been associated with reports of nausea and vomiting in one clinical study (88387). It is not clear if these adverse effects were associated with thyme, garlic, or the combination.

Genitourinary ...Intravaginally, cream containing thyme and garlic has been associated with reports of vaginal dryness and vaginal irritation in one clinical study (88387). It is not clear if these adverse effects were associated with thyme, garlic, or the combination.

Immunologic ...Orally, thyme can cause allergic reactions; however, this is uncommon (13463). Allergic reactions to thyme might be more common in people who are also allergic to oregano and other Lamiaceae species (3808).

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, thyme may case headache or dizziness (94033).

Pulmonary/Respiratory ...By inhalation, occupational exposure to thyme dust can cause acute airway obstruction (783,13463,13464,77982,78098).

(Read more about THYME)