| Ingredients | Amount Per Serving |
|---|---|
|
Calories
|
20 Calorie(s) |
|
Total Carbohydrates
|
1 Gram(s) |
|
(Niacinamide)
|
30 mg |
|
(Pyridoxine Hydrochloride)
|
25 mg |
|
(Methylcobalamin)
|
500 mcg |
|
Pump
|
|
|
(Fermented)
|
6.5 Gram(s) |
|
Muscle Fuel Matrix
|
3.5 Gram(s) |
|
(Fermented)
|
1750 mg |
|
(Fermented)
|
875 mg |
|
(Fermented)
|
875 mg |
|
Anabolic Activator
|
|
|
(Fermented)
|
3 Gram(s) |
|
Strength & Power Matrix
|
|
|
BetaPower
(Betaine Anhydrous)
|
2.5 Gram(s) |
|
(Beta-Alanine)
|
1.6 Gram(s) |
|
(Creatine Hydrochloride)
|
1.6 Gram(s) |
|
Hydrate & Defend
|
|
|
(Cocos nucifera )
(fruit)
|
500 mg |
|
Spectra Total ORAC Blend
|
100 mg |
|
(Coffea arabica Whole Fruit Extract)
|
|
|
(leaf)
|
|
|
(sprout)
|
|
|
(bulb)
|
|
|
(fruit)
|
|
|
(fruit)
|
|
|
(fruit)
|
|
|
(Sophora japonica)
|
|
|
(fruit)
|
|
|
(Broccoli Floret Concentrate, Broccoli Stem Concentrate)
|
|
|
(Euterpe oleracea Mart.)
(fruit)
|
|
|
(leaf)
|
|
|
(bark)
(Cinnamomum burmannii, Cinnamomum cassia)
(Cinnamomum cassia/burmannii blend )
|
|
|
(clove)
|
|
|
(leaf)
|
|
|
(rhizome)
|
|
|
(root)
|
|
|
(Sambucus nigra Fruit Concentrate)
|
|
|
(fruit)
|
|
|
(fruit)
|
|
|
(fruit)
|
|
|
(fruit)
|
|
|
(Aronia melanocarpa Fruit Concentrate)
|
|
|
(fruit)
|
|
|
(fruit)
|
|
|
(leaf)
|
|
|
(leaf)
(Brassica oleracea var. sabellica leaf Concentrate)
|
|
|
(fruit)
|
|
|
(sprout)
(Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera Concentrate)
|
|
|
Neuro-Focus Matrix
|
|
| 2 Gram(s) | |
|
(NALT)
|
1 Gram(s) |
|
(Fermented)
|
850 mg |
Malic Acid, Natural Flavors, Citric Acid, Tartaric Acid, Calcium Silicate (Alt. Name: Ca Silicate), Steviol Glycosides, Sucralose, Silicon Dioxide (Alt. Name: SiO2), Beet PlantPart: root
Below is general information about the effectiveness of the known ingredients contained in the product Pre-Kaged Stim-Free Cherry Bomb. Some ingredients may not be listed. This information does NOT represent a recommendation for or a test of this specific product as a whole.
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
There is insufficient reliable information available about the effectiveness of blackberry.
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
There is insufficient reliable information available about the effectiveness of camu camu.
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE
Below is general information about the safety of the known ingredients contained in the product Pre-Kaged Stim-Free Cherry Bomb. Some ingredients may not be listed. This information does NOT represent a recommendation for or a test of this specific product as a whole.
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately, short-term. Acai pulp, in a dose of up to 162.5 grams daily, has been used with apparent safety for up to 3 months in clinical research (17731,99400). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of acai when used topically.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when acerola fruit is used orally and appropriately. Acerola fruit contains an average of 2000 mg vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit, although this content varies widely. Acerola fruit should be consumed in amounts that do not provide more vitamin C than the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 2000 mg per day for adults (4844).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using in amounts greater than found in foods.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in food amounts. Eating apples and consuming apple juice is safe for most people. Apples are a common food source (3470,3472). However, eating apple seeds should be avoided because they can be toxic (6).
CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in food amounts.
Eating apples and consuming apple juice is safe for most people. Apples are a common food source (3470,3472).
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when apple pectin is used orally and appropriately, short-term.
Preliminary clinical research suggests that combination products containing apple pectin and German chamomile (Diarrhoesan) are safe when used in infants for up to one week (19705,19706).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of apple in amounts greater than those found in foods during pregnancy and lactation; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Basil has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used topically in medicinal amounts. Solutions containing up to 6% basil essential oil have been used with apparent safety for up to 12 weeks (103622). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of basil when inhaled as aromatherapy.
POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in medicinal amounts. Both the above ground parts and the oil of basil contain estragole, which might be hepatocarcinogenic and mutagenic (2,8,12).
CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when the above ground parts are used in amounts commonly found in foods.
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in medicinal amounts due to the estragole constituent (2,8).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when the above ground parts are used in amounts commonly found in foods.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used in larger amounts due to the estragole constituent of the essential oil.
Estragole might have mutagenic effects (2,12).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately, short-term. Oral beta-alanine, including a specific commercial product (CarnoSyn, Natural Alternatives International), has been used with apparent safety in doses up to 6.4 grams daily for 12 weeks in younger adults (14611,16025,16439,16441,18227,94357,97972,101028,101029,104144,106717), and up to 3.2 grams daily for 12 weeks in adults aged 55 years and older (16442,97955,97961,97965).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using in medicinal amounts.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in amounts commonly found in foods. Bilberry has Generally Recognized As Safe status (GRAS) for use in foods in the US (4912).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately for medicinal purposes. Bilberry fruit extracts have been used with apparent safety in clinical trials at a dose of up to 160 mg daily for up to 6 months (39,40,8139,9739,14280,35472,35510,35512,103190,104192,104195). A higher bilberry extract dose of 1.4 grams daily has been used with apparent safety for up to 4 weeks (104194). Whole bilberries or bilberry juice have also been consumed with apparent safety in quantities of 100-160 grams daily for up to 35 days (35463,91506).
POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when the leaves are used orally in high doses or for a prolonged period. Death can occur with chronic use of 1.5 gram/kg daily (2).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in the amounts commonly found in foods.
However, there is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of bilberry when used in medicinal amounts during pregnancy and lactation; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Black currant juice, leaves, and flowers have Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912). Black currant juice up to 3000 mL daily for up to 3 weeks (17636,35987), black currant extracts 1080 mg daily for 8 weeks (17635,93695), and black currant seed oil products up to 10.5 grams daily for 24 weeks (4016,17634,17638,35990) have also been used safely in clinical research. There is insufficient reliable information about the safety of black currant when used topically.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when the fruit is used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (4912). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of blackberry fruit or leaf when used in medicinal amounts.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using in amounts greater than those found in foods.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Blueberry, as the whole fruit, juice, or in a powder formulation, is safe when consumed in amounts commonly found in foods (13533,92387,92388,92394,96467,97181,99139). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of blueberry when used topically or when the leaves are used orally.
CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately in amounts commonly found in foods (13533,96465).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (13533,107281).
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of blueberry for medicinal use; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. BCAAs 12 grams daily have not been associated with significant adverse effects in studies lasting for up to 2 years (68,72,73,74,10117,10146,10147,37120,92643,97531,103351,103352). ...when used intravenously and appropriately. BCAAs are an FDA-approved injectable product (13309).
CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in dietary amounts of 71-134 mg/kg daily (11120,13308).
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when larger, supplemental doses are used orally and appropriately for up to 6 months (13307,13308,37127).
PREGNANCY:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using amounts greater than those found in food.
Although adverse effects have not been reported in humans, some animal research suggests that consumption of supplemental isoleucine, a BCAA, during the first half of pregnancy may have variable effects on birth weight, possibly due to abnormal placental development (103350).
LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using amounts greater than those found in food.
Although the safety of increased BCAA consumption during lactation is unclear, some clinical research suggests that a higher concentration of isoleucine and leucine in breastmilk during the first 6 months postpartum is not associated with infant growth or body composition at 2 weeks, 2 months, or 6 months (108466).
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in food amounts (14145). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of broccoli when used in medicinal amounts.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in food amounts (14145).
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of broccoli when used in medicinal amounts during pregnancy and lactation; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Broccoli sprout is considered safe for dietary consumption. However, broccoli sprouts should be grown in accordance with food safety recommendations developed by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (26424). There is evidence that improperly grown broccoli sprouts are at a higher risk of being contaminated with bacteria, including Listeria monocytogenes (26423), Salmonella (26424,26425), or Escherichia coli O157:H7 (26424,26425).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when broccoli sprout extract is used orally and appropriately, short-term. Broccoli sprout extract standardized to contain glucosinolate 25-100 mcmol or isothiocyanate 25 mcmol appears to be safe when used three times daily for up to 7 days (26422). Also, broccoli sprout extract providing glucoraphanin 30 mg daily appears to be safe when used daily for 2 months (102154).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when COOKED broccoli sprouts are consumed in amounts commonly found in foods.
Broccoli sprout is considered safe for dietary consumption provided the sprouts are grown in accordance with food safety recommendations developed by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and are cooked prior to eating (26424).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when RAW broccoli sprouts are consumed in amounts commonly found in foods.
There is evidence that uncooked broccoli sprouts may be contaminated with bacteria, including Listeria monocytogenes (26423), Salmonella (26424,26425), or Escherichia coli O157:H7 (26424,26425). Pregnant individuals are particularly susceptible to these food-borne illnesses, and becoming infected can increase the risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, premature birth, or neonatal infection (26170). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of broccoli sprout extract during pregnancy or lactation; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used in amounts commonly found in foods. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of Brussels sprout when used in medicinal amounts.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid amounts in excess of those found in foods.
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of camu camu.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Carrot essential oil, extracts, and food additives have Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally in medicinal amounts, short-term. Carrot has been used safely in doses of approximately 100 grams three times daily for up to 4 weeks (96308). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of carrot when used topically.
CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (4912).
Carrot essential oil, extracts, and food additives have Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when carrot juices are used excessively in nursing bottles for small children.
Excessive use of carrot juice may cause carotenemia and dental caries (25817).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in food (4912).
Carrot essential oil, extracts, and food additives have Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of carrot when used in medicinal amounts during pregnancy and lactation.
LIKELY SAFE ...when consumed in amounts commonly found in foods. Cassia cinnamon has Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) status in the US for use as a spice or flavoring agent (4912) ...when used orally and appropriately, short-term. Cassia cinnamon up to 2 grams daily has been used safely for up to 3 months (17011,21914). Cassia cinnamon 3-6 grams daily has been used safely for up to 6 weeks (11347,14344). Cassia cinnamon extract corresponding to 3 grams daily of cassia cinnamon powder has also been used safely for up to 4 months (21916).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used topically, short-term. Cassia cinnamon oil 5% cream applied topically to the legs has been used safely in one clinical trial (59580).
POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in high doses, long-term. Some cassia cinnamon products contain high levels of coumarin. Coumarin can cause hepatotoxicity in animal models (15299,21920). In humans, very high doses of coumarin from 50-7000 mg daily can result in hepatotoxicity that resolves when coumarin use is discontinued (15302). In most cases, ingestion of cassia cinnamon will not provide a high enough amount of coumarin to cause significant toxicity; however, in especially sensitive people, such as those with liver disease, prolonged ingestion of large amounts of cassia cinnamon might exacerbate the condition.
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately, short-term.
Cassia cinnamon 1 gram daily has been used safely in adolescents 13-18 years of age for up to 3 months (89648).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when consumed in amounts commonly found in foods (4912).
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of cassia cinnamon when used in medicinal amounts during pregnancy and breast-feeding. Stay on the safe side and stick to food amounts.
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts, short term. Capsules and juices containing chokeberry have been used with apparent safety in clinical studies lasting up to 90 days (92363,92364,92366,92368,92369,92371,92372,92374,92375,98086)(111115,111116).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using in medicinal amounts.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in food amounts. Coconut is recognized as safe for human consumption by the US Food and Drug Administration (95809).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts, short-term. Corn flakes supplemented with 15% or 25% dietary fiber from coconut flakes prepared with coconut flour have been used with apparent safety (26295).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in food amounts (95809).
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of coconut when used in medicinal amounts during pregnancy and lactation; avoid use.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in food amounts. Coconut oil can be safely consumed as a component of the diet (12361,17935,94452,106494). However, coconut oil should not be considered a healthy alternative to other saturated fats (94453,94643). Coconut oil contains more saturated fat than animal based fats, including lard and butter (94643). Therefore, like all saturated fats, coconut oil should be used in moderation (94453,94643). ...when used topically and appropriately. Commercial products containing coconut oil in concentrations up to 100% have been used with apparent safety. However, most research has used commercial products with concentrations up to 70% (12356,17936,17941).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts, short-term. Taking coconut oil up to 10 mL orally two or three times daily for up to 12 weeks has been used with apparent safety in clinical research (17938,17942,90615,106493,115879).
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used topically and appropriately, short-term.
Coconut oil has been used with apparent safety in children and neonates for about one month (13483,17937,90614,90616,96204,101873). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of coconut oil when taken orally in children.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of using coconut oil in medicinal amounts during pregnancy or lactation.
Coconut oil ingestion increases the amount of lauric acid in breast milk within 10 hours. This indicates that fatty acids from coconut oil are rapidly transferred into human breast milk following oral intake (14086). The impact of this increase in lauric acid on nursing infants is not known.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Drinking decaffeinated coffee or coffee containing caffeine in low to moderate amounts is safe (15,98806). According to a review by Health Canada, and a subsequent large meta-analysis conducted in the US, drinking up to 4 cups of coffee daily providing caffeine 400 mg daily is not associated with significant adverse cardiovascular, bone, behavioral, or reproductive effects in healthy adults (11733,98806). The US Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee states that there is strong and consistent evidence that consumption of beverages such as coffee that contain caffeine 400 mg daily is not associated with increased risk of major chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease or cancer, in healthy adults (98806).
POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in excessive amounts. Acute use of high doses of caffeine (more than 400 mg per day), which is found in more than 4 cups of caffeinated coffee, has been associated with significant adverse effects such as tachyarrhythmia and sleep disturbances (11832). Drinking caffeinated coffee in amounts greater than 6 cups per day (about 600 mg caffeine) short-term or long-term can also cause caffeinism, with symptoms of anxiety possibly progressing to delirium and agitation. Chronic use of caffeine, especially in large amounts, can sometimes produce tolerance, habituation, and psychological dependence (3719). Abrupt discontinuance of caffeine can cause physical withdrawal symptoms (11733). Keep in mind that only the amount of ADDED caffeine must be stated on product labels. The amount of caffeine found in ingredients such as coffee, which naturally contains caffeine, does not need to be provided. This can make it difficult to determine the total amount of caffeine in a given product. ...when used rectally as an enema. Coffee enemas have been linked to cases of severe electrolyte abnormalities and septicemia leading to severe side effects including death (3026,3347,3349,6652).
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when coffee containing caffeine is consumed orally in moderate amounts.
Oral intake of caffeine in doses of less than 2.5 mg/kg daily is not associated with significant adverse effects in children and adolescents (11733,98806). However, higher doses should be avoided. The adverse effects typically associated with caffeine-containing coffee are usually more severe in children than adults (11733).
PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally in moderate amounts.
Intake of caffeine from coffee and other sources should be monitored during pregnancy. Caffeine crosses the human placenta, but is not considered a teratogen. Fetal blood and tissue levels are similar to maternal concentrations (4260). The use of caffeine during pregnancy is controversial; however, moderate consumption has not been associated with clinically important adverse fetal effects (2708,2709,2710,2711,9606,11733,16014,16015). However, some research has also found that intrauterine exposure to even modest amounts of caffeine, based on maternal blood levels during the first trimester, is associated with a shorter stature in children ages 4-8 years (109846). In some studies, consuming amounts over 200 mg daily has been associated with a significantly increased risk of miscarriage (16014). This increased risk may be most likely to occur in people with genotypes that confer a slow rate of caffeine metabolism (98806). According to a review by Health Canada, and a subsequent large meta-analysis conducted in the US, most healthy pregnant patients can safely consume caffeine in doses up to 300 mg daily without an increased risk of spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, preterm birth, fetal growth retardation, or congenital malformations (11733,98806). Advise patients to keep caffeine consumption below 300 mg daily during pregnancy. This is similar to the amount of caffeine in about 3 cups of coffee. Keep in mind that only the amount of ADDED caffeine must be stated on product labels. The amount of caffeine found in ingredients such as coffee, which naturally contains caffeine, does not need to be provided. This can make it difficult to determine the total amount of caffeine in a given product.
PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when caffeinated coffee providing more than 300 mg of caffeine daily is consumed orally.
Caffeine from coffee crosses the placenta, producing fetal blood concentrations similar to maternal levels (4260). Consumption of caffeine in amounts over 300 mg daily is associated with a significantly increased risk of miscarriage in some studies (16014,98806). Advise patients to keep caffeine consumption from all sources below 300 mg daily during pregnancy. This is similar to the amount of caffeine in about 3 cups of coffee. High doses of caffeine throughout pregnancy have resulted in symptoms of caffeine withdrawal in newborn infants (9891). High doses of caffeine have also been associated with spontaneous abortion, premature delivery, and low birth weight (2709,2711). Drinking more than 6 cups of coffee daily increases the risk of spontaneous abortion (2709). Drinking 8 or more cups of coffee daily doubles the risk of stillbirth when compared with those who do not drink coffee during pregnancy (10621).
LACTATION: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally.
Drinking one or two caffeine-containing beverages daily during lactation is not associated with unacceptable levels of caffeine in human milk (11734).
LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in large amounts.
Caffeine from coffee can cause wakefulness or irritability in breast-fed infants. Caffeine can also cause feeding intolerance and gastrointestinal irritation in infants (6026).
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately, short-term. Creatine supplementation appears to be safe when used at loading doses of up to 25 grams daily or 0.3 grams/kg daily for up to 14 days in healthy adults (1367,2100,2101,3996,4569,10064,15354,15520,46570,46587)(46673,46688,46719,46753,46801,103278,103279,108336). Creatine supplementation also appears to be safe when used at maintenance doses of 4-5 grams daily for up to 18 months (2101,4578,15353,15354,15520,46587,46673,46690,46753,46838,102164,103278,108336).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately, long-term. Creatine supplementation has been safely used at doses of up to 10 grams daily for up to 5 years in some preliminary clinical research (1367,3996). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of creatine when used topically.
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately.
Creatine supplementation appears to be safe when used in appropriate doses in infants and children. Creatine 3-5 grams daily for 2-6 months has been safely used in children 5-18 years of age (6182,46596,46739,46841). Creatine 2 grams daily for 6 months has been safely used in children 2-5 years of age (46841). Additionally, weight-based dosing of creatine 0.1-0.4 grams/kg daily in infants and children or 4.69 grams/m2 in children weighing over 40 kg has been used safely for up to 6 months (46623,46629,46694,46759,104672).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in the amounts typically found in foods. Elderberry has generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when elderberry fruit extract is used orally, short-term. One specific elderberry fruit extract (Sambucol, Nature's Way) has been used with apparent safety for up to 5 days (5260,12235,103831); another (BerryPharma, Iprona AG) has been used with apparent safety for up to 15 days (91374). A specific elderberry fruit extract lozenge (ViraBLOC, HerbalScience) has been used with apparent safety for 2 days (17022). Other elderberry fruit extracts have been used with apparent safety for up to 12 weeks (21141,21142).
POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when elder tree leaves and stems, or unripe or uncooked elderberries, are consumed. The unripe green fruit, as well as the leaves and stems of the elder tree, contain a cyanide-producing chemical, which can cause serious toxicity (17020,17021,21143,21144,91374). Cooking eliminates the toxin.
CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when consumed in the amounts typically found in foods.
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally for up to 3 days.
A specific fruit extract (Sambucol, Nature's Way) has been used in doses of 15 mL twice daily for 3 days in children 5 years and older (5260,103831).
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when unripe or uncooked elderberries are consumed.
The unripe green fruit, as well as the leaves and stems of the elder tree, contain a cyanide-producing chemical , which can cause serious toxicity (17020,17021,21143,21144,91374). Cooking eliminates the toxin.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when consumed in the amounts typically found in foods.
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of elderberry when used for medicinal purposes; avoid using in amounts greater than those found in foods.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Garlic has been used safely in clinical studies lasting up to 7 years without reports of significant toxicity (1873,4782,4783,4784,4785,4786,4787,4789,4790,4797)(4798,6457,6897,14447,96008,96009,96014,102016,102670,103479)(107238,107239,107352,108607,110722,111763,114892).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used topically. Garlic-containing gels, lipid-soluble garlic extracts, garlic pastes, and garlic mouthwashes have been safely used in clinical research for up to 3 months (4766,4767,8019,15030,51330,51386). ...when used intravaginally. A vaginal cream containing garlic and thyme has been safely used nightly for 7 nights (88387).
POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when raw garlic is used topically (585). Raw garlic might cause severe skin irritation when applied topically.
PREGNANCY: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (3319).
PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in medicinal amounts.
Garlic is reported to have abortifacient activity (11020). One study also suggests that garlic constituents are distributed to the amniotic fluid after a single dose of garlic (4828). However, there are no published reports of garlic adversely affecting pregnancy. In clinical research, garlic 800 mg daily was used during the third trimester of pregnancy with no reported adverse outcomes (9201,51626). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of topical garlic during pregnancy.
LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (3319).
LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in amounts greater than those found in foods.
Several small studies suggest that garlic constituents are secreted in breast milk, and that nursing infants of mothers consuming garlic are prone to extended nursing (3319,4829,4830). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of topical garlic during lactation.
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately for up to 8 weeks.
Garlic extract 300 mg three times daily has been used with apparent safety for up 8 weeks in children ages 8-18 years (4796). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of garlic when used over longer durations or in higher doses.
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when raw garlic is used topically.
Raw garlic might cause severe skin irritation when applied topically (585,51210).
LIKELY SAFE ...when green tea is consumed as a beverage in moderate amounts (733,6031,9222,9223,9225,9226,9227,9228,14136,90156)(90159,90168,90174,90184,95696). Green tea contains caffeine. According to a review by Health Canada, and a subsequent large meta-analysis conducted in the US, drinking up to 8 cups of green tea daily, or approximately 400 mg of caffeine, is not associated with significant adverse cardiovascular, bone, behavioral, or reproductive effects in healthy adults (11733,98806). The US Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee states that there is strong and consistent evidence that consumption of caffeine 400 mg daily is not associated with increased risk of major chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease or cancer, in healthy adults (98806). ...when green tea extract cream or ointment is used topically and appropriately, short-term. A green tea extract 3% cream, applied twice daily, has been used with apparent safety for up to 8 weeks, and a specific green tea extract ointment (Veregen, Bradley Pharmaceuticals) providing 15% kunecatechins has been safely used for up to 16 weeks (15067). The safety of treatment for longer durations or multiple treatment courses is not known.
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when green tea extract is used orally. Green tea extract containing 7% to 12% caffeine has been used safely for up to 2 years (8117,37725). Also decaffeinated green tea extract up to 1.3 grams daily enriched in EGCG has been used safely for up to 12 months (90158,97131). In addition, green tea extract has been safely used as part of an herbal mixture also containing garcinia, coffee, and banaba extracts for 12 weeks (90137). ...when used topically and appropriately as a cream or mouthwash (6065,11310,90141,90150,90151).
POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when consumed as a beverage in large quantities. Green tea contains a significant amount of caffeine. Chronic use, especially in large amounts, can produce tolerance, habituation, psychological dependence, and other significant adverse effects. Doses of caffeine greater than 600 mg per day, or approximately 12 cups of green tea, have been associated with significant adverse effects such as tachyarrhythmias and sleep disturbances (11832). These effects would not be expected to occur with the consumption of decaffeinated green tea. Keep in mind that only the amount of ADDED caffeine must be stated on product labels. The amount of caffeine found in ingredients such as green tea, which naturally contains caffeine, does not need to be provided. This can make it difficult to determine the total amount of caffeine in a given product. There is also some speculation that green tea products containing higher amounts of the catechin epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) might have increased risk of adverse events. Some research has found that taking green tea products containing EGCG levels greater than 200 mg is associated with increased risk of mild adverse effects such as constipation, increased blood pressure, and rash (90161). Other research has found that doses of EGCG equal to or above 800 mg daily may be associated with increased risk of liver injury in humans (95440,95696,97131).
LIKELY UNSAFE ...when used orally in very high doses. The fatal acute oral dose of caffeine is estimated to be 10-14 grams (150-200 mg per kilogram). Serious toxicity can occur at lower doses depending on variables in caffeine sensitivity such as smoking, age, and prior caffeine use (11832).
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally by children and adolescents in amounts commonly found in foods and beverages (4912,11833).
Intake of caffeine in doses of less than 2.5 mg/kg daily is not associated with significant adverse effects in children and adolescents (11733,98806). ...when used for gargling three times daily for up to 90 days (90150).
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of green tea extract when used orally in children. However, taking green tea extract orally has been associated with potentially serious, albeit uncommon and unpredictable cases, of hepatotoxicity in adults. Therefore, some experts recommend that children under the age of 18 years of age do not use products containing green tea extract (94897).
PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally in moderate amounts.
Due to the caffeine content of green tea, pregnant patients should closely monitor their intake to ensure moderate consumption. Fetal blood concentrations of caffeine approximate maternal concentrations (4260). The use of caffeine during pregnancy is controversial; however, moderate consumption has not been associated with clinically important adverse fetal effects (2708,2709,2710,2711,9606,11733,16014,16015,98806). In some studies consuming amounts over 200 mg daily is associated with a significantly increased risk of miscarriage (16014). This increased risk may be most likely to occur in those with genotypes that confer a slow rate of caffeine metabolism (98806). According to a review by Health Canada, and a subsequent large meta-analysis conducted in the US, most healthy pregnant patients can safely consume doses up to 300 mg daily without an increased risk of spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, preterm birth, fetal growth retardation, or congenital malformations (11733,98806). Advise keeping caffeine consumption below 300 mg daily. This is similar to the amount of caffeine in about 6 cups of green tea. Keep in mind that only the amount of ADDED caffeine must be stated on product labels. The amount of caffeine found in ingredients such as green tea, which naturally contains caffeine, does not need to be provided. This can make it difficult to determine the total amount of caffeine in a given product. Based on animal models, green tea extract catechins are also transferred to the fetus, but in amounts 50-100 times less than maternal concentrations (15010). The potential impact of these catechins on the human fetus is not known, but animal models suggest that the catechins are not teratogenic (15011).
PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in amounts providing more than 300 mg caffeine daily.
Caffeine from green tea crosses the placenta, producing fetal blood concentrations similar to maternal levels (4260). Consumption of caffeine in amounts over 300 mg daily is associated with a significantly increased risk of miscarriage in some studies (16014,98806). Advise keeping caffeine consumption from all sources below 300 mg daily. This is similar to the amount of caffeine in about 6 cups of green tea. High maternal doses of caffeine throughout pregnancy have also resulted in symptoms of caffeine withdrawal in newborn infants (9891). High doses of caffeine have also been associated with spontaneous abortion, premature delivery, and low birth weight (2709,2711). However, some research has also found that intrauterine exposure to even modest amounts of caffeine, based on maternal blood levels during the first trimester, is associated with a shorter stature in children ages 4-8 years (109846). Keep in mind that only the amount of ADDED caffeine must be stated on product labels. The amount of caffeine found in ingredients such as green tea, which naturally contains caffeine, does not need to be provided. This can make it difficult to determine the total amount of caffeine in a given product.
There is also concern that consuming large amounts of green tea might have antifolate activity and potentially increase the risk of folic acid deficiency-related birth defects. Catechins in green tea inhibit the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase in vitro (15012). This enzyme is responsible for converting folic acid to its active form. Preliminary evidence suggests that increasing maternal green tea consumption is associated with increased risk of spina bifida (15068). Also, evidence from epidemiological research suggests that serum folate levels in pregnant patients with high green tea intake (57.3 mL per 1000 kcal) are decreased compared to participants who consume moderate or low amounts of green tea (90171). More evidence is needed to determine the safety of using green tea during pregnancy. For now, advise pregnant patients to avoid consuming large quantities of green tea.
LACTATION: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally in moderate amounts.
Due to the caffeine content of green tea, nursing parents should closely monitor caffeine intake. Breast milk concentrations of caffeine are thought to be approximately 50% of maternal serum concentrations (9892).
LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in large amounts.
Consumption of green tea might cause irritability and increased bowel activity in nursing infants (6026). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of green tea extracts when applied topically during breast-feeding.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used in amounts commonly found in foods. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of kale when used orally in medicinal amounts.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods.
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of kale when used orally in medicinal amounts; avoid use.
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. In clinical trials, L-citrulline has been used with apparent safety for up to 2 months at doses of 1.5-6 grams daily (94954,94956,94961,94962,100974). Doses of up to 15 grams have also been used as single doses or within a 24 hour period (16470,16473).
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately.
L-citrulline has been used with apparent safety in infants at a dose of 0.17 grams/kg daily (16472). It has also been used in children 6.5-10 years of age at a dose of 7.5 grams daily for 26 weeks (100976). ...when used intravenously and appropriately. An intravenous bolus dose of L-citrulline 150 mg/kg followed by 9 mg/kg/hour for 48 hours has been used safely in children under 6 years of age (16469).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally. Mangosteen has been used with apparent safety at a dose of up to 560 mg daily for 12 weeks (110127). It has also been used with apparent safety in combination with Sphaeranthus indicus (Meratrim, Laila Nutraceuticals) or Indian cassia (Cindura, Laila Nutraceuticals), for a total dose of 800 mg daily for up to 16 weeks (97876,97878,97879,101079). ...when used topically as a single dose. Mangosteen pericarp 4% gel has been applied once along the gum line with apparent safety (97875).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when prescription products are used orally and appropriately (12033). ...when niacinamide supplements are taken orally in doses below the tolerable upper intake level (UL) set by the Institute of Medicine (IOM). The UL of niacinamide is 30 mg daily for adults 18 years of age and 35 mg daily for adults 19 years and older (6243).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally in doses greater than 30 mg but less than 900 mg daily. The European Food Safety Authority has set the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of niacinamide at 900 mg daily (104937). However, oral niacinamide has been safely used in doses up to 1500 mg daily for 12 weeks in some clinical trials (25561,94188,98940,107709,110502) and up to 1000 mg daily for 12 months in other trials (93362,113559,113560). ...when used topically and appropriately for up to 16 weeks (5940,93360,110497,110498,110501,113681,113683,113684).
CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately.
Niacinamide has been safely used in children for up to 7 years in doses below the tolerable upper intake level (UL) (4874,9957). The UL of niacinamide for children by age is: 1-3 years, 10 mg daily; 4-8 years, 15 mg daily; 9-13 years, 20 mg daily; 14-18 years, 30 mg daily (6243).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts that do not exceed the tolerable upper intake level (UL) for niacinamide.
The UL of niacinamide during pregnancy and lactation is 30 mg daily for those 14-18 years of age and 35 mg daily for those 19 years and older (6243). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of larger oral doses of niacinamide or topical niacinamide; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when consumed in amounts commonly found in foods. Onion has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912). ...when onion extract is used topically (66742,66883,66895,66903,67089,95151,95154,95156).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when onion extract is used orally and appropriately (2). Onion extract has been used safely in doses of 300 mg three times daily for up to 12 weeks (95149,101747).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using in amounts greater than used in foods.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Oregano leaf and oil have Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of oregano when used orally in amounts greater than those found in food. There is also insufficient reliable information available about the safety of oregano when used topically. Oregano oil in concentrations of greater than 1% may be irritating when applied to mucous membranes (67348,88188).
PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in medicinal amounts.
Oregano is thought to have abortifacient and emmenagogue effects (19,7122,19104).
LACTATION:
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of oregano when used in medicinal amounts; avoid amounts greater than those found in food.
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately, short-term. Quercetin has been used with apparent safety in doses up to 1 gram daily for up to 12 weeks (481,1998,1999,16418,16429,16430,16431,96774,96775,96782)(99237,102539,102540,102541,104229,104679,106498,106499,107450,109620)(109621). ...when used intravenously and appropriately. Quercetin has been used with apparent safety in doses less than 945 mg/m2. Higher doses have been reported to cause nephrotoxicity (9564,16418). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of quercetin when used topically.
POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used intravenously in large amounts. Doses greater than 945 mg/m2 have been reported to cause nephrotoxicity (9564,16418).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when the fruit is used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (13622).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when the fruit is used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts (6481,9796). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of red raspberry leaf when used orally or topically.
PREGNANCY: LIKELY SAFE
when the fruit is used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (13622).
PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY SAFE
when red raspberry leaf is used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts during late pregnancy under the supervision of a healthcare provider.
Red raspberry leaf is used by nurse midwives to facilitate delivery. There is some evidence that red raspberry leaf in doses of up to 2.4 grams daily, beginning at 32 weeks' gestation and continued until delivery, can be safely used for this purpose (6481,9796). Make sure patients do not use red raspberry leaf without the guidance of a healthcare professional.
PREGNANCY: LIKELY UNSAFE
when red raspberry leaf is used orally in medicinal amounts throughout pregnancy or for self-treatment.
Red raspberry leaf might have estrogenic effects (6180). These effects can adversely affect pregnancy. Tell pregnant patients not to use red raspberry leaf at any time during pregnancy without the close supervision of a healthcare provider.
LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when the fruit is used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (13622).
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of red raspberry leaf; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used in amounts commonly found in foods.
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts. Spinach has been used with apparent safety at a dose of 5 grams daily for up to 12 weeks (96856).
CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when consumed in the amounts commonly found in foods by children older than 4 months of age (18).
CHILDREN: LIKELY UNSAFE
when used orally in infants under 4 months old; the high nitrate content of spinach can cause methemoglobinemia (18).
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of spinach in children when used in medicinal amounts.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used in amounts commonly found in foods; avoid medicinal amounts.
LIKELY SAFE ...when the fruit is consumed in amounts commonly found in foods (14056,14058,93197,94712). ...when the fruit is used orally in medicinal amounts, short-term. Sweet cherry 280 grams daily for 28 days has been safely used in clinical research (94712). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of sweet cherry when used orally in medicinal amounts, long-term.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when the fruit is consumed in amounts commonly found in foods (14056,14058).
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of sweet cherry when used in medicinal amounts during pregnancy or lactation.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used in amounts found in foods. Typical daily intakes for adults range from 40-400 mg (101471).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts. Taurine 2-4 grams daily in two or three divided doses has been used safely in studies lasting up to 3 months (5248,5271,8217,8221,10454,77147,95612,98337,104165,104167). Higher doses of taurine 6 grams daily have been used safely in studies lasting up to 4 weeks (98336,98337). A risk assessment of orally administered taurine has identified an Observed Safe Level (OSL) of up to 3 grams daily for healthy adults (31996).
CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used in amounts found in foods.
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts.
Taurine 2.4-4.8 grams daily in three divided doses has been safely used in children 6-16 years of age for up to 12 weeks (103210).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used in amounts found in foods.
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of taurine when used in medicinal amounts during pregnancy and lactation; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when the ripe or unripe tomato fruit or its products are consumed in amounts found in foods (2406,9439,10418,106653,106654). ...when tomato leaf is consumed in regular food amounts (18).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when a tomato extract is used orally for medicinal purposes. A specific tomato extract (Lyc-O-Mato, LycoRed Ltd) has been used with apparent safety in clinical studies lasting up to 8 weeks (7898,14287,102182).
POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when the tomato leaf or unripe green tomato fruit is used orally in excessive amounts. Tomato leaf and unripe green tomatoes contain tomatine, which has been associated with toxicity when consumed in large quantities (18,102957). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of the tomato vine.
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when the tomato fruit or its products are consumed in typical food amounts.
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of tomato extracts when used during pregnancy or lactation; avoid using.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately, short-term. Turmeric products providing up to 8 grams of curcumin have been safely used for up to 2 months (10453,11144,11150,17953,79085,89720,89721,89724,89728,101347)(81036,101349,107110,107116,107117,107118,107121,109278,109283,114899) and products providing up to 1500 mg of curcumin daily have been safely used for up to 12 months (114898). Additionally, turmeric in doses up to 3 grams daily has been used with apparent safety for up to 3 months (102350,104146,104148,113357,114906). ...when used topically and appropriately (11148).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used as an enema, short-term. Turmeric extract in water has been used as a daily enema for up to 8 weeks (89729). ...when used topically as a mouthwash, short-term. A mouthwash containing 0.05% turmeric extract and 0.05% eugenol has been used safely twice daily for up to 21 days (89723).
PREGNANCY: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in food.
PREGNANCY: LIKELY UNSAFE
when used orally in medicinal amounts; turmeric might stimulate the uterus and increase menstrual flow (12).
LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in food.
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of using turmeric in medicinal amounts during lactation.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Tyrosine has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts, short-term. Tyrosine has been used safely in doses up to 150 mg/kg daily for up to 3 months (7210,7211,7215). ...when used topically and appropriately (6155).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of tyrosine during pregnancy and lactation when used in medicinal amounts.
Some pharmacokinetic research shows that taking a single dose of tyrosine 2-10 grams orally can modestly increase levels of free tyrosine in breast milk. However, total levels are not affected, and levels remain within the range found in infant formulas. Therefore, it is not clear if the increase in free tyrosine is a concern (91467).
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally, topically, intravenously, intramuscularly, or intranasally and appropriately. Vitamin B12 is generally considered safe, even in large doses (15,1344,1345,1346,1347,1348,2909,6243,7289,7881)(9414,9416,10126,14392,15765,82832,82949,82860,82864,90386)(111334,111551).
PREGNANCY: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts that do not exceed the recommended dietary allowance (RDA).
The RDA for vitamin B12 during pregnancy is 2.6 mcg daily (6243). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of larger amounts of vitamin B12 during pregnancy.
LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts that do not exceed the recommended dietary allowance (RDA).
The RDA of vitamin B12 during lactation is 2.8 mcg daily (6243). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of larger amounts of vitamin B12 while breastfeeding.
LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in doses that do not exceed the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 100 mg daily in the form of pyridoxine for adults (15,6243). ...when used parenterally and appropriately. Injectable vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is an FDA-approved prescription product (15).
POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in doses of 101-200 mg daily (6243,8558).
POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in doses at or above 500 mg daily. High doses, especially those exceeding 1000 mg daily or total doses of 1000 grams or more, pose the most risk. However, neuropathy can occur with lower daily or total doses (6243,8195). ...when used intramuscularly in high doses and frequency due to potential for rhabdomyolysis (90795).
CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately in doses that do not exceed the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of vitamin B6 in the form of pyridoxine 30 mg daily for children aged 1-3 years, 40 mg daily for 4-8 years, 60 mg daily for 9-13 years, and 80 mg daily for 14-18 years (6243).
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately in amounts exceeding the recommended dietary allowance (5049,8579,107124,107125,107135).
CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in excessive doses, long-term (6243).
PREGNANCY: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately.
A special sustained-release product providing vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 75 mg daily is FDA-approved for use in pregnancy. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is also considered a first-line treatment for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy by the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology (111601). However, it should not be used long-term or without medical supervision and close monitoring. The tolerable upper intake level (UL) refers to vitamin B6 in the form of pyridoxine and is 80 mg daily for those aged 14-18 years and 100 mg daily for 19 years and older (6243).
PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in excessive doses.
There is some concern that high-dose maternal vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) can cause neonatal seizures (4609,6397,8197).
LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in doses not exceeding the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of vitamin B6 in the form of pyridoxine 80 mg daily for those aged 14-18 years and 100 mg daily for those 19 years and older.
The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) in lactating women is 2 mg daily (6243). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of vitamin B6 when used in higher doses in breast-feeding women.
Below is general information about the interactions of the known ingredients contained in the product Pre-Kaged Stim-Free Cherry Bomb. Some ingredients may not be listed. This information does NOT represent a recommendation for or a test of this specific product as a whole.
Theoretically, taking acai with antidiabetes drugs might interfere with glycemic control.
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Theoretically, the antioxidant effects of acerola might reduce the effectiveness of alkylating agents.
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Acerola contains vitamin C, an antioxidant. There is concern that antioxidants might reduce the activity of chemotherapy drugs that generate free radicals, such as alkylating agents (391). In contrast, other researchers theorize that antioxidants might make alkylating chemotherapy more effective by reducing oxidative stress that could interfere with apoptosis (cell death) of cancer cells (14012,14013). More evidence is needed to determine what effect, if any, antioxidants such as vitamin C have on chemotherapy.
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Theoretically, concomitant use of acerola with aluminum salts might increase the amount of aluminum absorbed.
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Acerola contains vitamin C. It is thought that vitamin C chelates aluminum, keeping it in solution and available for absorption (10549,10550,10551). In people with normal renal function, urinary excretion of aluminum likely increases, making aluminum retention and toxicity unlikely (10549). However, patients with renal failure who take aluminum-containing compounds, such as phosphate binders, should avoid acerola in doses that provide more vitamin C than the recommended dietary allowances.
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Theoretically, the antioxidant effects of acerola might reduce the effectiveness of antitumor antibiotics.
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Acerola contains vitamin C, an antioxidant. There is concern that antioxidants might reduce the activity of chemotherapy drugs that generate free radicals, such as antitumor antibiotics (391). In contrast, other researchers theorize that antioxidants might make antitumor antibiotic chemotherapy more effective by reducing oxidative stress that could interfere with apoptosis (cell death) of cancer cells (14012,14013). More evidence is needed to determine what effects, if any, antioxidants such as vitamin C have on antitumor antibiotic chemotherapy.
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Theoretically, acerola might reduce the clearance of aspirin; however, its vitamin C content is likely too low to produce clinically significant effects.
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Acerola contains vitamin C. It has been suggested that acidification of the urine by vitamin C can decrease the urinary excretion of salicylates, increasing plasma salicylate levels (3046). However, short-term use of up to 6 grams daily of vitamin C does not seem to affect urinary pH or salicylate excretion (10588,10589). The vitamin C content of acerola is typically about 2000 mg per 100 grams. Thus, a clinically significant interaction between acerola and aspirin is unlikely.
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Theoretically, concomitant use of acerola with estrogens might increase estrogenic effects.
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Acerola contains vitamin C. Increases in plasma estrogen levels of up to 55% have occurred under some circumstances when vitamin C is taken concurrently with oral contraceptives or hormone replacement therapy, including topical products (129,130,11161). It is suggested that vitamin C prevents oxidation of estrogen in the tissues, regenerates oxidized estrogen, and reduces sulfate conjugation of estrogen in the gut wall (129,11161). When tissue levels of vitamin C are high, these processes are already maximized and supplemental vitamin C does not have any effect on estrogen levels. However, increases in plasma estrogen levels may occur when women who are deficient in vitamin C take supplements (11161).
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Theoretically, acerola might reduce the effectiveness of warfarin; however, its vitamin C content is likely too low to produce clinically significant effects.
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Acerola contains vitamin C. High doses of vitamin C may reduce the response to warfarin, possibly by causing diarrhea and reducing warfarin absorption (11566). This occurred in two people who took up to 16 grams daily of vitamin C, and resulted in decreased prothrombin time (9804,9806). Lower doses of 5-10 grams daily of vitamin C can also reduce warfarin absorption, but this does not seem to be clinically significant (9805,9806,11566,11567). The vitamin C content of acerola is typically about 2000 mg per 100 grams. Thus, a clinically significant interaction between acerola and warfarin is unlikely.
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Concomitant consumption of apple juice can significantly decrease oral absorption and blood levels of aliskiren.
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Pharmacokinetic research shows that coadministration of apple juice 200 mL along with aliskiren 150 mg decreases the bioavailability of aliskiren by 63% (17670). Apple juice seems to inhibit organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP), which is involved in drug uptake in the gut, liver, and kidney (7046,94413). It is thought that apple juice might affect OATP for only a short time. Therefore, separating drug administration and consumption of apple juice by at least 4 hours might avoid this interaction (17603,17604).
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Theoretically, consuming apple juice with antidiabetes drugs might interfere with blood glucose control.
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Clinical research suggests that consuming apples or drinking apple juice can raise blood glucose levels, with the effects of drinking apple juice being more significant than consuming apples (31699).
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Consuming apple juice with antihypertensive drugs might interfere with blood pressure control.
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Some clinical evidence suggests that consuming apple and cherry juice can increase blood pressure in elderly patients (31680).
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Concomitant consumption of apple juice can significantly decrease oral absorption and blood levels of atenolol.
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Pharmacokinetic research shows that coadministration of apple juice 600-1200 mL decreases levels of atenolol by 58% to 82% in a dose-dependent manner (17999). Apple juice seems to inhibit organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP), which is involved in drug uptake in the gut, liver, and kidney (7046). It is thought that apple juice might affect OATP for only a short time. Therefore, separating drug administration and consumption of apple juice by at least 4 hours might avoid this interaction (17603,17604).
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Concomitant consumption of apple juice can significantly decrease oral absorption and blood levels of fexofenadine.
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Pharmacokinetic research shows that coadministration of apple juice 400-1200 mL along with fexofenadine 60-120 mg decreases bioavailability of fexofenadine by up to 78% (7046,94413). Coadministration with smaller quantities of apple juice (150 mL or less) does not appear to affect the bioavailability of fexofenadine (94421). Apple juice seems to inhibit organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP), which is involved in drug uptake in the gut, liver, and kidney (7046,94413). It is thought that apple juice might affect OATP for only a short time. Therefore, separating drug administration and consumption of apple juice by at least 4 hours might avoid this interaction (17603,17604).
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There is some concern that concomitant consumption of apple juice might decrease oral absorption and blood levels of lithium.
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In one case report, a patient had an undetectable serum lithium level when lithium citrate was administered with apple juice. When lithium was administered with an alternative beverage, the lithium level became detectable and the patient demonstrated clinical improvement (105342).
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Concomitant consumption of apple juice can significantly decrease oral absorption and blood levels of OATP substrates.
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Research shows that consuming apple juice inhibits OATP, which reduces bioavailability of oral drugs that are substrates of OATP (7046,17605). Fexofenadine, atenolol, and aliskiren are substrates of OATP. Clinical research shows that coadministration of apple juice decreases bioavailability of fexofenadine by up to 78% (7046,94413), aliskiren by 63% (17670), and atenolol by up to 82% (17999). These effects appear to increase with larger quantities of apple juice. It is thought that apple juice might affect OATP for only a short time. Therefore, separating drug administration and consumption of apple juice by at least 4 hours might avoid this interaction (17603,17604).
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Theoretically, basil might increase the risk of bleeding when taken with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.
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Theoretically, basil might increase the risk of hypotension when taken with antihypertensive drugs.
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Animal research suggests that basil extract can reduce systolic and diastolic blood pressure (76893).
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Theoretically, bilberry fruit extract might increase the risk of bleeding when taken with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.
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Theoretically, bilberry leaf or fruit extract may increase the risk of hypoglycemia when taken with antidiabetes drugs.
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Animal research suggests that bilberry leaf extract might have blood glucose-lowering activity (1264). Also, one small clinical trial in patients with type 2 diabetes shows that taking bilberry fruit extract 470 mg as a single dose prior to an oral glucose tolerance test lowers plasma glucose levels when compared with placebo (91507).
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Theoretically, bilberry fruit extract might decrease levels of drugs metabolized by CYP2E1.
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Animal research shows that exposure to small concentrations of bilberry extract in drinking water for around one month increased CYP2E1 activity by 31%. However, exposure over a 2-month period did not increase CYP2E1 activity (103191). This effect has not been reported in humans.
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Theoretically, bilberry fruit extract might reduce the efficacy of erlotinib.
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In vitro research suggests that bilberry fruit extract and its constituents, delphinidin and delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, inhibit the activity of erlotinib (97031). This interaction has not been reported in humans.
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Theoretically, black currant seed oil might increase the risk of bleeding if used in combination with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.
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Theoretically, black currant seed oil might increase the risk of seizure in patients receiving phenothiazines.
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Black currant seed oil contains gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). There is some concern that taking supplements containing GLA might cause seizures, or lower the seizure threshold, when taken with phenothiazines, although there is no evidence that black currant seed oil causes seizures (88187). In one report, three patients with schizophrenia who had received phenothiazines developed EEG changes suggestive of temporal lobe epilepsy after starting treatment with GLA, although none experienced an actual seizure (21013). In another report, two patients with schizophrenia who were stabilized on phenothiazines developed seizures when evening primrose 4 grams daily, which contains GLA, was added. One of these patients had a prior history of seizures (21010).
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Theoretically, blueberries or blueberry leaf extracts might increase the risk of hypoglycemia when taken with antidiabetes drugs.
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Theoretically, blueberry juice might increase blood levels of buspirone.
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In vitro research shows that blueberry juice can inhibit the metabolism of buspirone, possibly by inhibiting cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) enzymes. However, pharmacokinetic research in humans shows that drinking 300 mL of blueberry juice 30 minutes before taking buspirone hydrochloride 10 mg does not significantly affect the concentration or clearance of buspirone (92385).
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Theoretically, blueberry juice might increase blood levels of flurbiprofen.
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In vitro research shows that blueberry juice can inhibit the metabolism of flurbiprofen, possibly by inhibiting cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) enzymes. However, pharmacokinetic research in humans shows that drinking 300 mL of blueberry juice 30 minutes before taking flurbiprofen 100 mg does not significantly affect the concentration or clearance of flurbiprofen (92385).
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Theoretically, BCAAs might alter the effects of antidiabetes medications.
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BCAAs in large doses can reduce the effects of levodopa.
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BCAAs may compete with levodopa for transport systems in the intestine and brain and decrease the effectiveness of levodopa (66,2719). Small clinical studies how that concomitant ingestion of protein or high doses of leucine or isoleucine (100 mg/kg) and levodopa can exacerbate tremor, rigidity, and the "on-off" syndrome in patients with Parkinson disease (3291,3292,3293,3294).
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Theoretically, broccoli might reduce the levels and effects of drugs metabolized by CYP1A2.
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Theoretically, broccoli might reduce the levels and effects of drugs metabolized by CYP2A6.
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Pharmacokinetic research in humans shows that eating 500 grams of broccoli daily for 6 days increases CYP2A6 activity by 135% to 550%. Induction of CYP2A6 activity is attributed to its glucosinolate constituents (19608).
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Theoretically, broccoli sprout might reduce levels and effects of drugs metabolized by CYP1A2.
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Animal research shows that broccoli sprout extract can increase CYP1A2 gene expression (95721). Also, pharmacokinetic research in humans shows that eating 500 grams of fresh broccoli daily for 6-12 days can increase CYP1A2 activity by 10% to 200% (19608,95722). Induction of CYP1A2 activity by broccoli is attributed to glucosinolate constituents, which are also found in broccoli sprout (19608).
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Theoretically, broccoli sprout might reduce levels and effects of drugs metabolized by CYP2A6.
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Pharmacokinetic research in humans shows that eating broccoli 500 grams daily for 6 days increases CYP2A6 activity by 135% to 550%. Induction of CYP2A6 is attributed to glucosinolate constituents, which are also found in broccoli sprout (19608).
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A cabbage and Brussels sprout-containing diet can increase metabolism and decrease levels of acetaminophen. In clinical research, a diet that includes daily consumption of cabbage and Brussels sprout decreases acetaminophen levels by as much as 16%. This appears to occur due to a boost of elimination through glucuronide conjugation (3952).
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Animal research suggests that Brussels sprout can induce cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) activity (26183). Theoretically, Brussels sprout might increase the clearance and decrease the effects of drugs metabolized by CYP1A2. Some drugs metabolized by CYP1A2 include clozapine (Clozaril), cyclobenzaprine (Flexeril), fluvoxamine (Luvox), haloperidol (Haldol), imipramine (Tofranil), mexiletine (Mexitil), olanzapine (Zyprexa), pentazocine (Talwin), propranolol (Inderal), tacrine (Cognex), theophylline, zileuton (Zyflo), zolmitriptan (Zomig), and others.
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A cabbage and Brussels sprout-containing diet seems to boost elimination through glucuronide conjugation (3952). Theoretically, these foods might also lower levels of other drugs that are metabolized through glucuronide conjugation, including acetaminophen (Tylenol, others) and oxazepam (Serax), haloperidol (Haldol), lamotrigine (Lamictal), morphine (MS Contin, Roxanol), zidovudine (AZT, Retrovir), and others.
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A diet that includes daily consumption of cabbage and Brussels sprout decreases oxazepam levels by as much as 17%. This appears to occur due to a boost of elimination through glucuronide conjugation (3952). Theoretically, Brussels sprout might also lower levels of other drugs that are metabolized through glucuronide conjugation including acetaminophen (Tylenol, others), haloperidol (Haldol), lamotrigine (Lamictal), morphine (MS Contin, Roxanol), zidovudine (AZT, Retrovir), and others.
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Preliminary clinical research shows that increasing Brussels sprout consumption by 400 grams daily can increase warfarin clearance rate by 27% and decrease plasma concentrations of warfarin by 16% (26182). Theoretically, consuming Brussels sprout while taking warfarin might decrease the effects of warfarin and increase the risk of blood clots in some people.
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Theoretically, cassia cinnamon may have additive effects with antidiabetes drugs.
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Theoretically, large doses of cassia cinnamon might cause additive effects when used with hepatotoxic drugs.
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There is some concern that ingesting large amounts of cassia cinnamon for an extended duration might cause hepatotoxicity in some people. Cassia cinnamon contains coumarin, which can cause hepatotoxicity in animal models (15299,21920). In humans, very high doses of coumarin from 50-7000 mg/day can result in hepatotoxicity that resolves when coumarin use is discontinued (15302,97249). Lower amounts might also cause liver problems in sensitive people, such as those with liver disease or those taking potentially hepatotoxic agents.
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Theoretically, chokeberry might increase the risk of bleeding when taken with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.
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Theoretically, chokeberry might increase the risk of hypoglycemia when taken with antidiabetes drugs.
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Theoretically, chokeberry might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP3A4.
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Theoretically, chokeberry might increase the effects and adverse effects of trabectedin.
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In one case report, a patient drinking chokeberry juice developed rhabdomyolysis induced by trabectedin, a cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) substrate. It is possible that inhibition of CYP3A4 by chokeberry juice might have inhibited the metabolism of trabectedin and increased trabectedin levels in this patient (92426).
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Theoretically, taking coconut with antidiabetes drugs might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.
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Animal research suggests that coconut milk might increase insulin levels and/or decrease blood glucose levels (107671).
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Theoretically, coffee might decrease the vasodilatory effects of adenosine and interfere with its use prior to stress testing.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Caffeine is a competitive inhibitor of adenosine at the cellular level (38172). However, caffeine does not seem to affect supplemental adenosine because high interstitial levels of adenosine overcome the antagonistic effects of caffeine (11771). It is recommended that methylxanthines such as caffeine, as well as methylxanthine-containing products, be stopped 24 hours prior to pharmacological stress tests (11770). However, methylxanthines appear more likely to interfere with dipyridamole (Persantine) than adenosine-induced stress testing (11771).
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Theoretically, alcohol might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Coffee reduces alendronate bioavailability.
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Separate coffee ingestion and alendronate administration by two hours. Coffee reduces alendronate bioavailability by 60% (11735).
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Theoretically, coffee may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Caffeine is reported to have antiplatelet activity (8028,8029). Theoretically, the caffeine in coffee might increase the risk of bleeding when used concomitantly with these agents. However, this interaction has not been reported in humans. There is some evidence that caffeinated coffee might increase the fibrinolytic activity in blood (8030).
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Theoretically, concomitant use of coffee and antidiabetes drugs might interfere with blood glucose control.
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Theoretically, concomitant use of large amounts of coffee might increase cardiac inotropic effects of beta-agonists.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Caffeine can increase cardiac inotropic effects of beta-agonists (15).
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Theoretically, cimetidine might increase the effects and adverse effects of caffeine in coffee.
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Theoretically, coffee might increase the levels and adverse effects of clozapine and acutely exacerbate psychotic symptoms.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Caffeine can increase the effects and toxicity of clozapine. Caffeine doses of 400-1000 mg daily inhibit clozapine metabolism (5051). Clozapine is metabolized by cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2). Researchers speculate that caffeine might inhibit CYP1A2. However, there is no reliable evidence that caffeine affects CYP1A2. There is also speculation that genetic factors might make some patients be more sensitive to the interaction between clozapine and caffeine (13741).
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the effects and adverse effects of caffeine found in coffee.
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Theoretically, coffee might decrease the vasodilatory effects of dipyridamole and interfere with its use prior to stress testing.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Caffeine is a methylxyanthine that may inhibit dipyridamole-induced vasodilation (11770,11772,24974,37985,53795). It is recommended that methylxanthines such as caffeine, as well as methylxanthine-containing products such as coffee, be stopped 24 hours prior to pharmacological stress tests (11770). Methylxanthines appear more likely to interfere with dipyridamole (Persantine) than adenosine-induced stress testing (11771).
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Theoretically, disulfiram might increase the risk of adverse effects from caffeine.
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Coffee contains caffeine. In human research, disulfiram decreases the clearance and increases the half-life of caffeine (11840).
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the risk of hypokalemia.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the risk of stimulant adverse effects.
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Coffee contains caffeine. There is evidence that using ephedrine with caffeine might increase the risk of serious life-threatening or debilitating adverse effects such as hypertension, myocardial infarction, stroke, seizures, and death (1275,6486,9740,10307). Tell patients to avoid taking caffeine with ephedrine and other stimulants.
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Theoretically, estrogens might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Estrogen inhibits caffeine metabolism (2714).
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Theoretically, fluconazole might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Theoretically, fluvoxamine might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Coffee consumption can decrease the levels and clinical effects of lamotrigine.
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A pharmacokinetic study in patients taking lamotrigine shows that consumption of coffee, both caffeinated and decaffeinated, can decrease the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) and the peak plasma level (Cmax) of lamotrigine. Each additional cup of coffee reduced the AUC and Cmax by 4% and 3%, respectively. It is unclear whether this interaction is due to induction of lamotrigine metabolism or inhibition of lamotrigine absorption (107837).
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Coffee can reduce the absorption of levothyroxine.
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In some patients, coffee can reduce levothyroxine absorption, possibly through the formation of non-absorbable complexes. A pharmacokinetic study in these patients found that 25-30 mL of espresso coffee consumed with levothyroxine tablets delayed the time to peak plasma levels by 38-43 minutes, reduced the peak plasma level (Cmax) by 19% to 36%, and reduced the area under the curve (AUC) by 27% to 36%. Coffee consumed one hour after levothyroxine did not affect absorption (16401). It is not known whether this interaction occurs with other types of coffee. Tell patients to avoid drinking coffee at the same time that they take their levothyroxine, and for up to an hour afterwards.
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Theoretically, abrupt coffee withdrawal might increase the levels and adverse effects of lithium.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Abrupt caffeine withdrawal can increase serum lithium levels (609). Two cases of lithium tremor that worsened with abrupt coffee withdrawal have been reported (609,610). There is also one case of a 2.8-fold increase in blood lithium levels after a patient taking lithium reduced his coffee consumption from 13-20 cups daily to 10 cups daily (97369).
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Theoretically, mexiletine might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the risk of a hypertensive crisis.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Caffeine has been shown to inhibit monoamine oxidase (MAO) A and B in laboratory studies (37724,37877,37912,38108). Concomitant intake of large amounts of caffeine with MAOIs might precipitate a hypertensive crisis (15). In a case report, a patient that consumed 10-12 cups of caffeinated coffee and took the MAOI tranylcypromine presented with severe hypertension (91086). Hypertension was resolved after the patient switched to drinking decaffeinated coffee.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the risk of hypertension.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Concomitant use of caffeine and nicotine has been shown to have additive cardiovascular effects, including increased heart rate and blood pressure. Blood pressure was increased by 10.8/12.4 mmHg when the agents were used concomitantly (36549).
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Theoretically, coffee might reduce the effects of pentobarbital.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Theoretically, caffeine might negate the hypnotic effects of pentobarbital (13742).
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Theoretically, phenothiazines might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine. Also, coffee may bind to phenothiazines and reduce their absorption.
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Theoretically, phenylpropanolamine might increase the risk of hypertension, as well as the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Theoretically, coffee might increase the levels and clinical effects of pioglitazone.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Animal research suggests that caffeine can modestly increase the maximum concentration, area under the curve, and half-life of pioglitazone, and also reduce its clearance. This increased the antidiabetic effects of pioglitazone (108812). However, the exact mechanism of this interaction is unclear.
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Theoretically, quinolone antibiotics might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the levels and adverse effects of both caffeine and riluzole.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Caffeine and riluzole are both metabolized by cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2), and concomitant use might reduce metabolism of one or both agents (11739).
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase stimulant adverse effects.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Due to the central nervous system (CNS) stimulant effects of caffeine, concomitant use with stimulant drugs can increase the risk of adverse effects (11832).
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Theoretically, terbinafine might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Terbinafine decreases the clearance of intravenous caffeine by 19% (11740).
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Theoretically, coffee might increase the levels and adverse effects of theophylline.
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Theoretically, TCAs might bind with coffee constituents when taken at the same time.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Coffee contains caffeine. Verapamil increases plasma caffeine concentrations by 25% (11741).
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Theoretically, elderberry might interfere with immunosuppressant therapy due to its immunostimulant activity.
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Elderberry has immunostimulant activity, increasing the production of cytokines, including interleukin and tumor necrosis factor (10796).
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Theoretically, elderberry might interact with pazopanib, potentially increasing the risk of adverse effects.
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Garlic may have antiplatelet effects and may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.
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Theoretically, taking garlic with antidiabetes drugs might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.
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Theoretically, taking garlic with antihypertensive drugs might increase the risk of hypotension.
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Theoretically, garlic might decrease levels and effects of atazanavir.
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In a case report, a patient consuming six stir-fried garlic cloves three times weekly developed suboptimal atazanavir levels and increases in HIV viral load. While the exact cause of this interaction is unclear, there is speculation that garlic might decrease the intestinal absorption of atazanavir or increase its metabolism by inducing cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) (88388). Until more is known, advise patients not to consume large amounts of garlic while taking atazanavir.
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Garlic might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP2E1.
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Clinical research suggests garlic oil can inhibit the activity of CYP2E1 by 39% (10847). Use garlic oil cautiously in patients taking drugs metabolized by these enzymes.
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Theoretically, garlic products containing allicin might induce intestinal CYP3A4 and inhibit hepatic CYP3A4. This may increase or decrease levels of drugs metabolized by CYP3A4.
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Some human research suggests that garlic may induce INTESTINAL CYP3A4, reducing levels of drugs metabolized by this enzyme. This is primarily based on a study showing that taking a specific allicin-containing garlic product (GarliPure Maximum Allicin Formula, Natrol Inc.) twice daily for 3 days reduces saquinavir levels by approximately 50%. It is speculated that the allicin constituent induced CYP3A4 in the gut mucosa (7027,93578). Another study shows that giving docetaxel intravenously, bypassing the CYP3A4 enzymes in the gut mucosa, along with the same specific garlic product for 12 consecutive days, does not affect docetaxel levels (17221). Conversely, there is concern that garlic may inhibit HEPATIC CYP3A4. In a single case report, increased tacrolimus levels and liver injury occurred in a liver transplant patient after taking a specific garlic supplement (Garlicin Cardio, Nature's Way) at up to three times the manufacturer recommended dose for 7 days (96010). Several other studies have evaluated the impact of other garlic formulations on CYP3A4 substrates and have found no effect. Most of the products in these studies provided little or no allicin (10335,10847,15031,94506).
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Theoretically, garlic might decrease levels of isoniazid.
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Animal research suggests that an aqueous extract of garlic reduces isoniazid levels by about 65%. Garlic reduced the maximum concentration (Cmax) and area under the curve (AUC), but not the half-life, of isoniazid. This suggests that garlic extract might inhibit isoniazid absorption across the intestinal mucosa (15031); however, the exact mechanism of this potential interaction is not known.
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Theoretically, garlic products containing allicin might decrease levels of PIs.
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Protease inhibitors are metabolized by cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) isoenzymes. There is concern that garlic products containing allicin might induce intestinal CYP3A4, reducing plasma levels of protease inhibitors. This is primarily based on a study showing that taking a specific garlic product (GarliPure Maximum Allicin Formula, Natrol Inc.) twice daily for 3 days reduces levels of saquinavir, a PI, by approximately 50%. It is speculated that the allicin constituent induce CYP3A4 in the gut mucosa (7027,93578). Several studies have evaluated the impact of other garlic formulations on CYP3A4 substrates and have found no effect. Most of the products in these studies provided little or no allicin (10335,10847,15031,94506).
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Theoretically, garlic containing allicin might decrease levels of saquinavir.
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Saquinavir is a substrate of cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) isoenzymes. There is concern that garlic products containing allicin might induce intestinal CYP3A4 and cause subtherapeutic levels of saquinavir. This is primarily based on a pharmacokinetic study showing that taking a specific garlic product (GarliPure Maximum Allicin Formula, Natrol Inc.) twice daily for 3 days reduces saquinavir levels by approximately 50%. It is speculated that the allicin constituent induces CYP3A4 in the gut mucosa (7027,93578). Several pharmacokinetic studies have evaluated the impact of other garlic formulations on CYP3A4 substrates and have found no effect. Most of the products in these studies provided little or no allicin (10335,10847,15031,94506). Until more is known about this potential interaction, use garlic containing allicin cautiously in patients taking saquinavir.
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Theoretically, taking garlic with sofosbuvir might decrease its effectiveness.
Details
Animal research in rats shows that giving aged garlic extract 120 mg/kg orally daily for 14 days decreases the area under the concentration time curve (AUC) after a single sofosbuvir dose of 40 mg/kg by 36%, increases the clearance by 63%, and decreases the plasma concentrations at 1 and 8 hours by 35% and 58%, respectively. This interaction is hypothesized to be due to induction of intestinal P-glycoprotein expression by garlic (109524).
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Theoretically, garlic might increase levels of tacrolimus.
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In one case report, a liver transplant patient taking tacrolimus experienced increased tacrolimus levels and liver injury after taking a specific garlic supplement (Garlicin Cardio, Nature's Way) at up to three times the manufacturer recommended dose for 7 days. It is speculated that garlic inhibited hepatic cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4), which increased plasma levels of tacrolimus (96010).
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Theoretically, garlic might increase the risk of bleeding with warfarin.
Details
Raw garlic and a variety of garlic extracts have antiplatelet activity and can increase prothrombin time (586,616,1874,3234,4366,4802,4803,51397). In addition, there is a report of two patients who experienced an increase in a previously stabilized international normalized ratio (INR) with concomitant garlic and warfarin use (51228,51631). However, this report has been subsequently debated due to limited clinical information. Other clinical studies have not identified an effect of garlic on INR, warfarin pharmacokinetics, or bleeding risk (15032,16416). More evidence is needed to determine the safety of using garlic with warfarin.
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Theoretically, high doses of green tea might increase the effects and side effects of 5-fluorouracil.
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Animal research shows that taking green tea in amounts equivalent to about 6 cups daily in humans for 4 weeks prior to receiving a single injection of 5-fluorouracil increases the maximum plasma levels of 5-fluorouracil by about 2.5-fold and the area under the curve by 425% (98424).
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Theoretically, green tea might decrease the vasodilatory effects of adenosine and interfere with its use prior to stress testing.
Details
Green tea contains caffeine. Caffeine is a competitive inhibitor of adenosine at the cellular level. However, caffeine doesn't seem to affect supplemental adenosine because high interstitial levels of adenosine overcome the antagonistic effects of caffeine (11771). It is recommended that methylxanthines and methylxanthine-containing products be stopped 24 hours prior to pharmacological stress tests (11770). However, methylxanthines appear more likely to interfere with dipyridamole (Persantine) than adenosine-induced stress testing (11771).
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Theoretically, alcohol might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Concomitant use of alcohol and caffeine can increase caffeine serum concentrations and the risk of caffeine adverse effects. Alcohol reduces caffeine metabolism (6370).
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Theoretically, green tea may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.
Details
Conflicting reports exist regarding the effect of green tea on bleeding risk when used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs; however, most evidence suggests that drinking green tea in moderate amounts is unlikely to cause a significant interaction. Green tea contains small amounts of vitamin K, approximately 7 mcg per cup (100524). Some case reports have associated the antagonism of warfarin with the vitamin K content of green tea (1460,1461,1463,4211,6048,8028,20868). However, these reports are rare, and very large doses of green tea (about 8-16 cups daily) appear to be needed to cause these effects. Furthermore, the catechins and caffeine in green tea are reported to have antiplatelet activity (733,8028,8029,12882,100524).
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Theoretically, taking green tea with antidiabetes drugs might interfere with blood glucose control.
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Green tea extract seems to reduce the levels and clinical effects of atorvastatin.
Details
In healthy humans, taking green tea extract 300 mg or 600 mg along with atorvastatin reduces plasma levels of atorvastatin by approximately 24%. The elimination of atorvastatin is not affected (102714). Atorvastatin is a substrate of organic anion-transporting polypeptides (OATPs). Research shows that two of the major catechins found in green tea, epicatechin gallate (ECG) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), inhibit OATPs. Some OATPs are expressed in the small intestine and are responsible for the uptake of drugs and other compounds, which may have resulted in reduced plasma levels of atorvastatin (19079). It is not clear if drinking green tea alters the absorption of atorvastatin.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Theoretically, concomitant use of large amounts of caffeine might increase cardiac inotropic effects of beta-agonists (15).
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Theoretically, green tea might interfere with the effects of bortezomib.
Details
In vitro research shows that green tea polyphenols, such as epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), interact with bortezomib and block its proteasome inhibitory action. This prevents the induction of cell death in multiple myeloma or glioblastoma cancer cell lines (17212). Advise patients taking bortezomib, not to take green tea.
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Theoretically, green tea might reduce the effects of carbamazepine and increase the risk for convulsions.
Details
Green tea contains caffeine. Animal research suggests that taking caffeine can lower the anticonvulsant effects of carbamazepine and can induce seizures when taken in doses above 400 mg/kg (23559,23561). Human research has shown that taking caffeine 300 mg in three divided doses along with carbamazepine 200 mg reduces the bioavailability of carbamazepine by 32% and prolongs the plasma half-life of carbamazepine 2-fold in healthy individuals (23562).
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Theoretically, green tea might reduce the levels and clinical effects of celiprolol.
Details
In a small human study, taking green tea daily for 4 days appears to decrease blood and urine levels of celiprolol by at least 98% (104607). This interaction is possibly due to the inhibition of organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP). Green tea catechins have been shown to inhibit organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATP), one of which, OATP1A2, is found in the intestine (19079,19080,98461) The interaction is thought to be due primarily to the epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) content of green tea (98461).
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the effects and adverse effects of caffeine in green tea.
Details
Green tea contains caffeine. Cimetidine can reduce caffeine clearance by 31% to 42% (11736).
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Theoretically, green tea might increase the levels and adverse effects of clozapine and acutely exacerbate psychotic symptoms.
Details
Animal research suggests that, although green tea extract does not affect the elimination of clozapine, it delays the time to reach peak concentration and reduces the peak plasma levels (90173). Also, concomitant administration of green tea and clozapine might theoretically cause acute exacerbation of psychotic symptoms due to the caffeine in green tea. Caffeine can increase the effects and toxicity of clozapine. Caffeine doses of 400-1000 mg daily inhibit clozapine metabolism (5051). Clozapine is metabolized by cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2). Researchers speculate that caffeine might inhibit CYP1A2. However, there is no reliable evidence that caffeine affects CYP1A2. There is also speculation that genetic factors might make some patients be more sensitive to the interaction between clozapine and caffeine (13741).
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the effects and adverse effects of caffeine found in green tea.
Details
Green tea contains caffeine. Oral contraceptives can decrease caffeine clearance by 40% to 65% (8644).
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
Details
Green tea contains caffeine. Caffeine is metabolized by cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) (3941,5051,11741,23557,23573,23580,24958,24959,24960,24962), (24964,24965,24967,24968,24969,24971,38081,48603). Theoretically, drugs that inhibit CYP1A2 may decrease the clearance rate of caffeine from green tea and increase caffeine levels.
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Green tea is unlikely to produce clinically significant changes in the levels and clinical effects of CYP3A4 substrates.
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Theoretically, green tea might decrease the vasodilatory effects of dipyridamole and interfere with its use prior to stress testing.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Caffeine might inhibit dipyridamole-induced vasodilation (11770,11772). It is recommended that methylxanthines and methylxanthine-containing products be stopped 24 hours prior to pharmacological stress tests (11770). Methylxanthines appear more likely to interfere with dipyridamole (Persantine) than adenosine-induced stress testing (11771).
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Theoretically, disulfiram might increase the risk of adverse effects from caffeine.
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In human research, disulfiram decreases the clearance and increases the half-life of caffeine (11840).
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Theoretically, using green tea with diuretic drugs might increase the risk of hypokalemia.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the risk for stimulant adverse effects.
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Theoretically, estrogens might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Estrogen inhibits caffeine metabolism (2714).
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Theoretically, green tea might reduce the effects of ethosuximide and increase the risk for convulsions.
Details
Green tea contains caffeine. Animal research suggests that caffeine 92.4 mg/kg can decrease the anticonvulsant activity of ethosuximide (23560). However, this effect has not been reported in humans.
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Theoretically, green tea might reduce the effects of felbamate and increase the risk for convulsions.
Details
Green tea contains caffeine. Animal research suggests that a high dose of caffeine 161.7 mg/kg can decreases the anticonvulsant activity of felbamate (23563). However, this effect has not been reported in humans.
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Green tea can decrease blood levels of fexofenadine.
Details
Clinical research shows that green tea can significantly decrease blood levels and excretion of fexofenadine. Taking green tea extract with a dose of fexofenadine decreased bioavailability of fexofenadine by about 30%. In vitro, green tea inhibits the cellular accumulation of fexofenadine by inhibiting the organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) drug transporter (111029). Research shows that two of the major catechins found in green tea, epicatechin gallate (ECG) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), inhibit OATPs, specifically OATP1A2, OATP1B1, and OATP2B1. In addition, green tea has been shown to reduce the absorption of some drugs that are OATP substrates (19079,102714,102730).
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Theoretically, fluconazole might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Fluconazole decreases caffeine clearance by approximately 25% (11022).
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Theoretically, green tea might increase the levels and adverse effects of flutamide.
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Green tea contains caffeine. In vitro evidence suggests that caffeine can inhibit the metabolism of flutamide (23553). Theoretically, concomitant use of caffeine and flutamide might increase serum concentrations of flutamide and increase the risk adverse effects.
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Theoretically, fluvoxamine might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
Details
Green tea contains caffeine. Fluvoxamine reduces caffeine metabolism (6370).
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Theoretically, concomitant use might have additive adverse hepatotoxic effects.
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Theoretically, green tea might reduce the levels and clinical effects of imatinib.
Details
In animal research, a single dose of green tea extract reduces the area under the curve (AUC) of imatinib by up to approximately 64% and its main metabolite N-desmethyl imatinib by up to approximately 81% (104600). This interaction has not been shown in humans. The mechanism of action is unclear but may involve multiple pathways.
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Theoretically, green tea might reduce the levels and clinical effects of lisinopril.
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Preliminary clinical research shows that a single dose of green tea extract reduces plasma concentrations of lisinopril. Compared to a control group, peak levels and area under the curve (AUC) of lisinopril were reduced by approximately 71% and 66%, respectively (104599). This may be due to inhibition of organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATP) by green tea catechins (19079,19080,98461) The interaction is thought to be due primarily to the epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) content of green tea (98461).
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Theoretically, abrupt green tea withdrawal might increase the levels and adverse effects of lithium.
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Theoretically, metformin might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Animal research suggests that metformin can reduce caffeine metabolism (23571). Theoretically, concomitant use can increase caffeine serum concentrations and the risk of caffeine adverse effects.
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Theoretically, methoxsalen might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
Details
Green tea contains caffeine. Methoxsalen can reduce caffeine metabolism (23572). Concomitant use can increase caffeine serum concentrations and the risk of caffeine adverse effects.
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Theoretically, mexiletine might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
Details
Green tea contains caffeine. Mexiletine can decrease caffeine elimination by 50% (1260).
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Theoretically, green tea might increase the levels and adverse effects of midazolam.
Details
Animal research suggests that green tea extract can increase the maximum plasma concentration, but not the half-life, of oral midazolam. This effect has been attributed to the inhibition of intestinal cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) and induction of hepatic CYP3A4 enzymes by green tea constituents (20896). However, it is unlikely that this effect is clinically significant, as the dose used in animals was 50 times greater than what is commonly ingested by humans.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the risk of a hypertensive crisis.
Details
Green tea contains caffeine. Caffeine has been shown to inhibit monoamine oxidase (MAO) A and B in laboratory studies (37724,37877,37912,38108). Concomitant intake of large amounts of caffeine with MAOIs might precipitate a hypertensive crisis (15). In a case report, a patient that consumed 10-12 cups of caffeinated coffee and took the MAOI tranylcypromine presented with severe hypertension (91086). Hypertension was resolved after the patient switched to drinking decaffeinated coffee.
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Green tea seems to reduce the levels and clinical effects of nadolol.
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Preliminary clinical research shows that green tea consumption reduces plasma concentrations of nadolol. Compared to a control group, both peak levels and total drug exposure (AUC) of nadolol were reduced by approximately 85% in subjects who drank green tea daily for two weeks. Drinking green tea with nadolol also significantly reduced nadolol's systolic blood pressure lowering effect (19071). Other clinical research shows that a single dose of green tea can affect plasma nadolol levels for at least one hour (102721). Green tea catechins have been shown to inhibit organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATP), one of which, OATP1A2, is involved in the uptake of nadolol in the intestine (19071,19079,19080,98461) The interaction is thought to be due primarily to the epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) content of green tea (98461).
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Theoretically, green tea might increase the levels and adverse effects of nicardipine.
Details
Green tea contains EGCG. Animal research shows that EGCG increases the area under the curve (AUC) and absolute oral bioavailability of nicardipine. The mechanism of action is thought to involve inhibition of both intestinal P-glycoprotein and hepatic cytochrome P450 3A (90136). The effect of green tea itself on nicardipine is unclear.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the risk of hypertension.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Concomitant use of caffeine and nicotine has been shown to have additive cardiovascular effects, including increased heart rate and blood pressure. Blood pressure was increased by 10.8/12.4 mmHg when the agents were used concomitantly (36549).
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Green tea seems to reduce the levels of nintedanib.
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Clinical research shows that green tea can significantly decrease blood levels of nintedanib. Taking green tea extract twice daily for 7 days 30 minutes prior to a meal along with nintedanib with the meal decreased the 12-hour area under the curve (AUC) values for nintedanib by 21%. There was no effect on the maximum concentration of nintedanib (111028).
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Theoretically, green tea might reduce the absorption of organic anion-transporting polypeptide (OATP) substrates.
Details
OATPs are expressed in the small intestine and liver and are responsible for the uptake of drugs and other compounds. Research shows that two of the major catechins found in green tea, epicatechin gallate (ECG) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), inhibit OATPs, specifically OATP1A2, OATP1B1, and OATP2B1. In addition, green tea has been shown to reduce the absorption of some drugs that are OATP substrates, including lisinopril, and celiprolol (19079,102714,102730).
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Green tea might increase the levels and adverse effects of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) substrates.
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In vitro research and case reports suggest that green tea inhibits drug efflux by P-gp, potentially increasing serum levels of P-gp substrates. Case reports from the World Health Organization (WHO) adverse drug reaction database describe increased toxicity in patients taking green tea and certain P-gp substrates (111644).
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Theoretically, green tea might decrease the effects of pentobarbital.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Theoretically, caffeine might negate the hypnotic effects of pentobarbital (13742).
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Theoretically, green tea might reduce the effects of phenobarbital and increase the risk for convulsions.
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Theoretically, phenothiazines might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Theoretically, phenylpropanolamine might increase the risk of hypertension, as well as the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Theoretically, green tea might reduce the effects of phenytoin and increase the risk for convulsions.
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Theoretically, green tea might increase the levels and clinical effects of pioglitazone.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Animal research suggests that caffeine can modestly increase the maximum concentration, area under the curve, and half-life of pioglitazone, and also reduce its clearance. This increased the antidiabetic effects of pioglitazone (108812). However, the exact mechanism of this interaction is unclear.
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Theoretically, quinolone antibiotics might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the levels and adverse effects of both caffeine and riluzole.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Caffeine and riluzole are both metabolized by cytochrome P450 1A2, and concomitant use might reduce metabolism of one or both agents (11739).
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Theoretically, green tea extract might alter the absorption and distribution of rosuvastatin.
Details
In animal research, giving green tea extract with rosuvastatin increased plasma levels of rosuvastatin. Rosuvastatin is a substrate of organic anion-transporting polypeptide (OATP)1B1, which is expressed in the liver. The increased plasma levels may have been related to inhibition of OATP1B1 (102717). However, in humans, taking EGCG with rosuvastatin reduced plasma levels of rosuvastatin, suggesting an inhibition of intestinal OATP (102730). It is not clear if drinking green tea alters the absorption of rosuvastatin.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase stimulant adverse effects.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Due to the central nervous system (CNS) stimulant effects of caffeine, concomitant use with stimulant drugs can increase the risk of adverse effects (11832).
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Theoretically, terbinafine might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Terbinafine decreases the clearance of intravenous caffeine by 19% (11740).
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Theoretically, green tea might increase the levels and adverse effects of theophylline.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Large amounts of caffeine might inhibit theophylline metabolism (11741).
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Theoretically, green tea might increase the levels and adverse effects of tiagabine.
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Green tea contains caffeine. Animal research suggests that chronic caffeine administration can increase the serum concentrations of tiagabine. However, concomitant use does not seem to reduce the antiepileptic effects of tiagabine (23561).
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Theoretically, ticlopidine might increase the levels and adverse effects of caffeine.
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Green tea contains caffeine. In vitro evidence suggests that ticlopidine can inhibit caffeine metabolism (23557). However, this effect has not been reported in humans.
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Theoretically, green tea might reduce the effects of valproate and increase the risk for convulsions.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the levels and adverse effects of both verapamil and caffeine.
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Animal research suggests that the green tea constituent EGCG increases the area under the curve (AUC) values for verapamil by up to 111% and its metabolite norverapamil by up to 87%, likely by inhibiting P-glycoprotein (90138). Also, theoretically, concomitant use of verapamil and caffeinated beverages such as green tea might increase plasma caffeine concentrations and the risk of adverse effects, due to the caffeine contained in green tea. Verapamil increases plasma caffeine concentrations by 25% (11741).
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Theoretically, green tea may increase the risk of bleeding if used with warfarin.
Details
Conflicting reports exist regarding the potential of green tea to antagonize the effect of warfarin; however, most evidence suggests that drinking green tea in moderation is unlikely to cause a significant interaction. Green tea contains a small amount of vitamin K, approximately 7 mcg per cup (100524). Some case reports have associated the antagonism of warfarin with the vitamin K content of green tea (1460,1461,1463,4211,6048,8028,20868). However, these reports are rare, and very large doses of green tea (about 8-16 cups daily) appear to be needed to cause these effects (1460,1461,1463,8028). Therefore, use of green tea in moderate amounts is unlikely to antagonize the effects of warfarin; however, very large doses should be avoided.
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Theoretically, concomitant use of L-citrulline with antihypertensive drugs might have additive effects and increase the chance of hypotension.
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Theoretically, concurrent use of phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5) inhibitors and L-citrulline might result in additive vasodilation.
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L-citrulline is converted to L-arginine, which can increase nitric oxide and cause vasodilation (7822,16460,16461). Theoretically, taking L-arginine with PDE-5 inhibitors might have additive vasodilatory and hypotensive effects. However, in studies evaluating the combined use of L-arginine and sildenafil for erectile dysfunction, hypotension was not reported (105065).
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Theoretically, concomitant use of mangosteen with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs may increase the risk of bleeding.
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Theoretically, concomitant use of mangosteen with donepezil might increase the effects of donepezil.
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Animal research shows that concomitant use of an aqueous extract of mangosteen pericarp with donepezil increases brain concentrations of donepezil at 4 hours by 64% without associated effects on systemic exposure (106791).
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Theoretically, niacinamide may have additive effects when used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs, especially in patients on hemodialysis.
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Niacinamide might increase the levels and adverse effects of carbamazepine.
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Plasma levels of carbamazepine were increased in two children given high-dose niacinamide, 60-80 mg/kg/day. This might be due to inhibition of the cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in carbamazepine metabolism (14506). There is not enough data to determine the clinical significance of this interaction.
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Niacinamide might increase the levels and adverse effects of primidone.
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Case reports in children suggest niacinamide 60-100 mg/kg/day reduces hepatic metabolism of primidone to phenobarbital, and reduces the overall clearance rate of primidone (14506); however, there is not enough data to determine the clinical significance of this potential interaction.
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Theoretically, concomitant use of anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs with onion might increase the risk of bleeding.
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Concomitant use of antidiabetes drugs with onion may increase the risk of hypoglycemia.
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Concomitant use of aspirin with onion may worsen onion allergy.
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In one case report, a patient with a mild onion allergy reported worsening allergy, including swelling and severe urticaria, after taking aspirin (5054).
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Theoretically, taking onion might increase the levels and clinical effects of drugs metabolized by CYP2E1.
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Animal research shows that taking onion powder inhibits CYP2E1 (19653). However, this interaction has not been reported in humans.
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Theoretically, oregano might increase the risk of bleeding when taken with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.
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Theoretically, oregano might increase the risk for hypoglycemia when taken with antidiabetes drugs.
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Theoretically, concomitant use of quercetin and antidiabetes drugs might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.
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Clinical research suggests that a combination of quercetin, myricetin, and chlorogenic acid reduce levels of fasting glucose in patients with type 2 diabetes, including those already taking antidiabetes agents (96779). The effect of quercetin alone is unknown. |
Theoretically, taking quercetin with antihypertensive drugs might increase the risk of hypotension.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the levels and adverse effects of cyclosporine.
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A small study in healthy volunteers shows that pretreatment with quercetin increases plasma levels and prolongs the half-life of a single dose of cyclosporine, possibly due to inhibition of p-glycoprotein or cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4), which metabolizes cyclosporin (16434). |
Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the levels and adverse effects of CYP2C8 substrates.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the levels and adverse effects of CYP2C9 substrates.
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A small clinical study in healthy volunteers shows that taking quercetin 500 mg twice daily for 10 days prior to taking diclofenac, a CYP2C9 substrate, increases diclofenac plasma levels by 75% and prolongs the half-life by 32.5% (97931). Animal research also shows that pretreatment with quercetin increases plasma levels and prolongs the half-life of losartan (Cozaar), a substrate of CYP2C9 (100968). Furthermore, laboratory research shows that quercetin inhibits CYP2C9 (15549,16433). |
Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the levels and adverse effects of CYP2D6 substrates.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might alter the effects and adverse effects of CYP3A4 substrates.
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A small clinical study in healthy volunteers shows that pretreatment with quercetin increases plasma levels and prolongs the half-life of a single dose of cyclosporine (Neoral, Sandimmune), a substrate of CYP3A4 (16434). Animal research also shows that pretreatment with quercetin increases plasma levels and prolongs the half-life of losartan (Cozaar) and quetiapine (Seroquel), substrates of CYP3A4 (100968,104228). Other laboratory research also shows that quercetin inhibits CYP3A4 (15549,16433,16435). However, one clinical study shows that quercetin can increase the metabolism of midazolam, a substrate of CYP3A4, and decrease serum concentrations of midazolam by about 24% in some healthy individuals, suggesting possible induction of CYP3A4 (91573).
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the levels and adverse effects of diclofenac.
Details
A small clinical study in healthy volunteers shows that taking quercetin 500 mg twice daily for 10 days prior to taking diclofenac increases diclofenac plasma levels by 75% and prolongs the half-life by 32.5%. This is thought to be due to inhibition of CYP2C9 by quercetin (97931). |
Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the effects and adverse effects of losartan and decrease the effects of its active metabolite.
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Animal research shows that pretreatment with quercetin increases plasma levels and prolongs the half-life of losartan (Cozaar) while decreasing plasma levels of losartan's active metabolite. This metabolite, which is around 10-fold more potent than losartan, is the result of cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C9- and CYP3A4-mediated transformation of losartan. Additionally, in vitro research shows that quercetin may inhibit P-glycoprotein-mediated efflux of losartan from the intestines, resulting in increased absorption of losartan (100968). These results suggest that concomitant use of quercetin and losartan might increase systemic exposure to losartan while also decreasing plasma concentrations of losartan's active and more potent metabolite. |
Theoretically, concomitant use might decrease the levels and effects of midazolam.
Details
A small clinical study in healthy volunteers shows that quercetin can increase the metabolism of midazolam, with a decrease in AUC of about 24% (91573). |
Theoretically, quercetin might increase the effects and adverse effects of mitoxantrone.
Details
In vitro research shows that quercetin increases the intracellular accumulation and cytotoxicity of mitoxantrone, possibly through inhibition of breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), of which mitoxantrone is a substrate (107897). So far, this interaction has not been reported in humans.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the effects and adverse effects of OAT1 substrates.
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In vitro research shows that quercetin is a strong non-competitive inhibitor of OAT1, with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values less than 10 mcM (104454). So far, this interaction has not been reported in humans. |
Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the effects and adverse effects of OAT3 substrates.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the effects and adverse effects of OATP substrates.
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In vitro evidence shows that quercetin can inhibit organic anion-transporting peptide (OATP) 1B1-mediated uptake of estrone-3-sulfate and pravastatin (91581). Furthermore, clinical research in healthy males shows that intake of quercetin along with pravastatin increases the AUC of pravastatin by 24%, prolongs its half-life by 14%, and decreases its apparent clearance by 18%, suggesting that quercetin modestly inhibits the uptake of pravastatin in hepatic cells (91581). |
Theoretically, concomitant use might alter the effects and adverse effects of P-glycoprotein substrates.
Details
There is preliminary evidence that quercetin inhibits the gastrointestinal P-glycoprotein efflux pump, which might increase the bioavailability and serum levels of drugs transported by the pump (16433,16434,16435,100968,104228). A small study in healthy volunteers reported that pretreatment with quercetin increased bioavailability and plasma levels after a single dose of cyclosporine (Neoral, Sandimmune) (16434). Also, two small studies have shown that quercetin might decrease the absorption of talinolol, a substrate transported by the gastrointestinal P-glycoprotein efflux pump (91579,91580). However, in another small study, several days of quercetin treatment did not significantly affect the pharmacokinetics of saquinavir (Invirase) (16433). The reason for these discrepancies is not entirely clear (91580). Until more is known, use quercetin cautiously in combination with P-glycoprotein substrates. |
Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the effects and adverse effects of pravastatin.
Details
In vitro evidence shows that quercetin can inhibit OATP 1B1-mediated uptake of pravastatin (91581). Also, preliminary clinical research in healthy males shows that intake of quercetin along with pravastatin increases the maximum concentration of pravastatin by 24%, prolongs its half-life by 14%, and decreases its apparent clearance by 18%, suggesting that quercetin modestly inhibits the uptake of pravastatin in hepatic cells (91581).
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Theoretically, quercetin might increase the effects and adverse effects of prazosin.
Details
In vitro research shows that quercetin inhibits the transcellular efflux of prazosin, possibly through inhibition of breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), of which prazosin is a substrate. BCRP is an ATP-binding cassette efflux transporter in the intestines, kidneys, and liver (107897). So far, this interaction has not been reported in humans.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might increase the effects and adverse effects of quetiapine.
Details
Animal research shows that pretreatment with quercetin can increase plasma levels of quetiapine and prolong its clearance, possibly due to inhibition of cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) by quercetin. Additionally, the brain-to-plasma ratio of quetiapine concentrations increased, possibly due to inhibition of P-glycoprotein at the blood-brain barrier (104228). This interaction has not been reported in humans.
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Theoretically, concomitant use might inhibit the effects of quinolone antibiotics.
Details
In vitro, quercetin binds to the DNA gyrase site on bacteria (481), which may interfere with the activity of quinolone antibiotics.
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Theoretically, quercetin might increase the effects and adverse effects of sulfasalazine.
Details
Animal research shows that quercetin increases the maximum serum concentration (Cmax) and area under the curve (AUC) of sulfasalazine, possibly through inhibition of breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), of which sulfasalazine is a substrate (107897). So far, this interaction has not been reported in humans.
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Theoretically, quercetin may increase the risk of bleeding if used with warfarin.
Details
Animal and in vitro studies show that quercetin might increase serum levels of warfarin (17213,109619). Quercetin and warfarin have the same human serum albumin (HSA) binding site, and in vitro research shows that quercetin has stronger affinity for the HSA binding site and can theoretically displace warfarin, causing higher serum levels of warfarin (17213). Animal research shows that taking quercetin for 2 weeks before initiating warfarin increases the maximum serum level of warfarin by 30%, the half-life by 10%, and the overall exposure by 63% when compared with control. Concomitant administration of quercetin and warfarin, without quercetin pre-treatment, also increased these measures, but to a lesser degree. Researchers theorize that inhibition of CYP3A4 by quercetin may explain these effects (109619). So far, this interaction has not been reported in humans.
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Theoretically, taking red raspberry leaf with anticoagulant/antiplatelet drugs might increase the risk of bleeding.
Details
In vitro research suggests that red raspberry leaf extract has antiplatelet activity and enhances the in vitro effects of the antiplatelet medication cangrelor (96300). This interaction has not been reported in humans.
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Red raspberry leaf might reduce glucose levels in patients being treated with insulin.
Details
In one case report, a 38-year-old patient with gestational diabetes, whose blood glucose was being controlled with medical nutrition therapy and insulin, developed hypoglycemia after consuming two servings of raspberry leaf tea daily for 3 days beginning at 32 weeks' gestation. The patient required an insulin dose reduction. The hypoglycemia was considered to be probably related to use of red raspberry leaf tea (96299).
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Spinach contains vitamin K, which can interfere with the activity of warfarin.
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In human research, although eating spinach with one meal does not result in coagulation test results outside the therapeutic range, daily consumption for one week necessitates dose adjustment of warfarin (19600). Individuals using anticoagulants should consume a consistent daily amount of spinach to maintain the effect of anticoagulant therapy (19).
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Theoretically, taurine might increase the risk of hypotension when taken with antihypertensive drugs.
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Theoretically, taurine might reduce excretion and increase plasma levels of lithium.
Details
Taurine is thought to have diuretic properties (3647), which might reduce the excretion of lithium.
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Turmeric has antioxidant effects. Theoretically, this may reduce the activity of chemotherapy drugs that generate free radicals. However, research is conflicting.
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In vitro research suggests that curcumin, a constituent of turmeric, inhibits mechlorethamine-induced apoptosis of breast cancer cells by up to 70%. Also, animal research shows that curcumin inhibits cyclophosphamide-induced tumor regression (96126). However, some in vitro research shows that curcumin does not affect the apoptosis capacity of etoposide. Also, other laboratory research suggests that curcumin might augment the cytotoxic effects of alkylating agents. Reasons for the discrepancies may relate to the dose of curcumin and the specific chemotherapeutic agent. Lower doses of curcumin might have antioxidant effects while higher doses might have pro-oxidant effects (96125). More evidence is needed to determine what effect, if any, turmeric might have on alkylating agents.
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Taking turmeric with amlodipine may increase levels of amlodipine.
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Animal research shows that giving amlodipine 1 mg/kg as a single dose following the use of turmeric extract 200 mg/kg daily for 2 weeks increases the maximum concentration and area under the curve by 53% and 56%, respectively, when compared with amlodipine alone (107113). Additional animal research shows that taking amlodipine 1 mg/kg with a curcumin 2 mg/kg pretreatment for 10 days increases the maximum concentration and area under the curve by about 2-fold when compared with amlodipine alone (103099).
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Turmeric may have antiplatelet effects and may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs. However, research is conflicting.
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Curcumin, a constituent of turmeric, has demonstrated antiplatelet effects in vitro (11143,81204,81271). Furthermore, two case reports have found that taking turmeric along with warfarin or fluindione was associated with an increased international normalized ratio (INR) (89718,100906). However, one clinical study in healthy volunteers shows that taking curcumin 500 mg daily for 3 weeks, alone or with aspirin 100 mg, does not increase antiplatelet effects or bleeding risk (96137). It is possible that the dose of turmeric used in this study was too low to produce a notable effect.
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Theoretically, taking turmeric with antidiabetes drugs might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.
Details
Animal research and case reports suggest that curcumin, a turmeric constituent, can reduce blood glucose levels in patients with diabetes (79692,79984,80155,80313,80315,80476,80553,81048,81219). Furthermore, clinical research in adults with type 2 diabetes shows that taking curcumin 475 mg daily for 10 days prior to taking glyburide 5 mg decreased postprandial glucose levels for up to 24 hours when compared with glyburide alone, despite the lack of a significant pharmacokinetic interaction (96133). Other clinical studies in patients with diabetes show that taking curcumin daily can reduce blood glucose levels when compared with placebo (104149,114898,114900).
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Turmeric has antioxidant effects. Theoretically, this may reduce the activity of chemotherapy drugs that generate free radicals. However, research is conflicting.
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In vitro and animal research shows that curcumin, a constituent of turmeric, inhibits doxorubicin-induced apoptosis of breast cancer cells by up to 65% (96126). However, curcumin does not seem to affect the apoptosis capacity of daunorubicin. In fact, some research shows that curcumin might augment the cytotoxic effects of antitumor antibiotics, increasing their effectiveness. Reasons for the discrepancies may relate to the dose of curcumin and the chemotherapeutic agent. Lower doses of curcumin might have antioxidant effects while higher doses might have pro-oxidant effects (96125). More evidence is needed to determine what effects, if any, antioxidants such as turmeric have on antitumor antibiotics.
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Theoretically, turmeric might increase or decrease levels of drugs metabolized by CYP1A1. However, research is conflicting.
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Theoretically, turmeric might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP1A2. However, research is conflicting.
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Turmeric might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP3A4.
Details
In vitro and animal research show that turmeric and its constituents curcumin and curcuminoids inhibit CYP3A4 (21497,21498,21499). Also, 8 case reports from the World Health Organization (WHO) adverse drug reaction database describe increased toxicity in patients taking turmeric and cancer medications that are CYP3A4 substrates, including everolimus, ruxolitinib, ibrutinib, and palbociclib, and bortezomib (111644). In another case report, a transplant patient presented with acute nephrotoxicity and elevated tacrolimus levels after consuming turmeric powder at a dose of 15 or more spoonfuls daily for ten days prior. It was thought that turmeric increased levels of tacrolimus due to CYP3A4 inhibition (93544).
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Theoretically, turmeric might increase blood levels of oral docetaxel.
Details
Animal research suggests that the turmeric constituent, curcumin, enhances the oral bioavailability of docetaxel (80999). However, the significance of this interaction is unclear, as this drug is typically administered intravenously in clinical settings.
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Theoretically, large amounts of turmeric might interfere with hormone replacement therapy through competition for estrogen receptors.
Details
In vitro research shows that curcumin, a constituent of turmeric, displaces the binding of estrogen to its receptors (21486).
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Theoretically, taking turmeric and glyburide in combination might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.
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Clinical research shows that taking curcumin 475 mg daily for 10 days prior to taking glyburide 5 mg increases blood levels of glyburide by 12% at 2 hours after the dose in patients with type 2 diabetes. While maximal blood concentrations of glyburide were not affected, turmeric modestly decreased postprandial glucose levels for up to 24 hours when compared to glyburide alone, possibly due to the hypoglycemic effect of turmeric demonstrated in animal research (96133).
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Theoretically, turmeric might increase the risk of liver damage when taken with hepatotoxic drugs.
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Theoretically, turmeric might increase the effects of losartan.
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Research in hypertensive rats shows that taking turmeric can increase the hypotensive effects of losartan (110897).
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Theoretically, turmeric might have additive effects when used with hepatotoxic drugs such as methotrexate.
Details
In one case report, a 39-year-old female taking methotrexate, turmeric, and linseed oil developed hepatotoxicity (111644).
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Theoretically, turmeric might increase the effects and adverse effects of norfloxacin.
Details
Animal research shows that taking curcumin, a turmeric constituent, can increase blood levels of orally administered norfloxacin (80863).
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Theoretically, turmeric might increase blood levels of OATP4C1 substrates.
Details
In vitro research shows that the turmeric constituent curcumin competitively inhibits OATP4C1 transport. This transporter is expressed in the kidney and facilitates the renal excretion of certain drugs (113337). Theoretically, taking turmeric might decrease renal excretion of OATP substrates.
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Theoretically, turmeric might increase the absorption of P-glycoprotein substrates.
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Theoretically, turmeric might alter blood levels of paclitaxel, although any effect may not be clinically relevant.
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Clinical research in adults with breast cancer receiving intravenous paclitaxel suggests that taking turmeric may modestly alter paclitaxel pharmacokinetics. Patients received paclitaxel on day 1, followed by either no treatment or turmeric 2 grams daily from days 2-22. Pharmacokinetic modeling suggests that turmeric reduces the maximum concentration and area under the curve of paclitaxel by 12.1% and 7.7%, respectively. However, these changes are not likely to be considered clinically relevant (108876). Conversely, animal research suggests that curcumin, a constituent of turmeric, enhances the oral bioavailability of paclitaxel (22005). However, the significance of this interaction is unclear, as this drug is typically administered intravenously in clinical settings.
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Turmeric might increase the effects and adverse effects of sulfasalazine.
Details
Clinical research shows that taking the turmeric constituent, curcumin, can increase blood levels of sulfasalazine by 3.2-fold (81131).
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Turmeric might increase the effects and adverse effects of tacrolimus.
Details
In one case report, a transplant patient presented with acute nephrotoxicity and elevated tacrolimus levels of 29 ng/mL. The patient previously had tacrolimus levels within the therapeutic range at 9.7 ng/mL. Ten days prior to presenting at the emergency room the patient started consumption of turmeric powder at a dose of 15 or more spoonfuls daily. It was thought that turmeric increased levels of tacrolimus due to cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) inhibition (93544). In vitro and animal research show that turmeric and its constituent curcumin inhibit CYP3A4 (21497,21498,21499).
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Turmeric may reduce the absorption of talinolol in some situations.
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Clinical research shows that taking curcumin for 6 days decreases the bioavailability of talinolol when taken together on the seventh day (80079). The clinical significance of this effect is unclear.
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Theoretically, turmeric might reduce the levels and clinical effects of tamoxifen.
Details
In a small clinical trial in patients with breast cancer taking tamoxifen 20-30 mg daily, adding curcumin 1200 mg plus piperine 10 mg three times daily reduces the 24-hour area under the curve of tamoxifen and the active metabolite endoxifen by 12.8% and 12.4%, respectively, as well as the maximum concentrations of tamoxifen, when compared with tamoxifen alone. However, in the absence of piperine, the area under the curve for endoxifen and the maximum concentration of tamoxifen were not significantly reduced. Effects were most pronounced in patients who were extensive cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 metabolizers (107123).
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Turmeric has antioxidant effects. There is some concern that this may reduce the activity of chemotherapy drugs that generate free radicals. However, research is conflicting.
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In vitro research shows that curcumin, a constituent of turmeric, inhibits camptothecin-induced apoptosis of breast cancer cells by up to 71% (96126). However, other in vitro research shows that curcumin augments the cytotoxic effects of camptothecin. Reasons for the discrepancies may relate to the dose of curcumin and the chemotherapeutic agents. Lower doses of curcumin might have antioxidant effects while higher doses might have pro-oxidant effects (96125). More evidence is needed to determine what effect, if any, turmeric might have.
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Turmeric might increase the risk of bleeding with warfarin.
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One case of increased international normalized ratio (INR) has been reported for a patient taking warfarin who began taking turmeric. Prior to taking turmeric, the patient had stable INR measurements. Within a few weeks of starting turmeric supplementation, the patient's INR increased to 10 (100906). Additionally, curcumin, the active constituent in turmeric, has demonstrated antiplatelet effects in vitro (11143,81204,81271), which may produce additive effects when taken with warfarin.
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Theoretically, tyrosine might decrease the effectiveness of levodopa.
Details
Tyrosine and levodopa compete for absorption in the proximal duodenum by the large neutral amino acid (LNAA) transport system (2719). Advise patients to separate doses of tyrosine and levodopa by at least 2 hours.
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Theoretically, tyrosine might have additive effects with thyroid hormone medications.
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Tyrosine is a precursor to thyroxine and might increase levels of thyroid hormones (7212).
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Theoretically, vitamin B6 might increase the photosensitivity caused by amiodarone.
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Theoretically, vitamin B6 may have additive effects when used with antihypertensive drugs.
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Research in hypertensive rats shows that vitamin B6 can decrease systolic blood pressure (30859,82959,83093). Similarly, clinical research in patients with hypertension shows that taking high doses of vitamin B6 may reduce systolic and diastolic blood pressure, possibly by reducing plasma levels of epinephrine and norepinephrine (83091).
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Vitamin B6 may increase the metabolism of levodopa when taken alone, but not when taken in conjunction with carbidopa.
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Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) enhances the metabolism of levodopa, reducing its clinical effects. However, this interaction does not occur when carbidopa is used concurrently with levodopa (Sinemet). Therefore, it is not likely to be a problem in most people (3046).
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High doses of vitamin B6 may reduce the levels and clinical effects of phenobarbital.
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High doses of vitamin B6 may reduce the levels and clinical effects of phenytoin.
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Below is general information about the adverse effects of the known ingredients contained in the product Pre-Kaged Stim-Free Cherry Bomb. Some ingredients may not be listed. This information does NOT represent a recommendation for or a test of this specific product as a whole.
General ...Orally, acai seems to be well tolerated.
Other ...Raw acai fruit and juice can be contaminated with a parasitic protozoan called Trypanosoma cruzi, which causes American trypanosomiasis or Chagas Disease. A Brazilian outbreak of this disease in 2006 was linked to consumption of acai juice (17194,30245).
General
...Orally, acerola seems to be well tolerated.
However, a thorough evaluation of safety outcomes has not been conducted.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Acerola has been linked with one case of anaphylaxis and one case of rectal obstruction.
Gastrointestinal ...Osmotic diarrhea and gastrointestinal upset have been reported with doses of vitamin C greater than the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 2000 mg daily (4844). Theoretically this could occur with large doses of oral acerola. A case report describes rectal obstruction with mass consisting of partially digested acerola fruits in a 5-year-old child who had ingested an unknown quantity of fruits daily for 7 days. The child presented with vomiting, abdominal pain and distension, tenesmus, constipation, and dehydration, and required surgical disimpaction (93205).
Immunologic ...There is a case report of a 37 year old man who developed a pruritic rash, dyspnea, and tachycardia 5 minutes after drinking a mixture of apple and acerola juices. He had a history of hay fever, oral allergy symptoms with avocado, celery, walnut, and curry, and contact urticaria with latex, but tolerated apples and apple juice. IgE antibodies to acerola were identified in the patient's serum. Ultimately, cross-reactivity between a latex protein and acerola was determined (93206).
General
...Orally, apple fruit is well tolerated.
Apple seeds, which contain cyanide, may cause serious adverse effects when consumed in large amounts.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Bloating, flatulence.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis. Ingestion of large amounts of apple seeds may cause cyanide poisoning, leading to death.
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, apple products, including whole apples, apple puree, and apple juice, may cause bloating and flatulence in some people (104184).
Immunologic ...Patients allergic to other fruits in the Rosaceae family, including apricot, almond, plum, peach, pear, and strawberry, can also be allergic to apples (7129). Rarely, the allergy has resulted in anaphylaxis (94425).
Other ...Orally, ingestion of large amounts of apple seeds, which contain hydrogen cyanide (HCN), may cause cyanide poisoning, leading to death. One death is attributed to ingestion of a cupful of apple seeds. To release cyanide, seeds must be hydrolyzed in the stomach, and several hours may elapse before poisoning symptoms occur (6).
General ...Topically, basil seems to be well tolerated.
Immunologic ...Allergic contact dermatitis has been reported in a 45-year old woman with occupational exposure to basil (95140).
General
...Orally, beta-alanine seems to be generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Flushing, paresthesia.
Gastrointestinal ...While rare, digestion problems have been reported with oral beta-alanine use (94341).
Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, beta-alanine can cause a dose-dependent feeling of pins and needles (paresthesias) along with skin flushing (16438,94333,94335,94338,94341,94342,94349,101028,101029,106711). This generally starts on the scalp within 20 minutes of the dose, spreading to most of the body, and lasting for about an hour. This was described as severe at a dose of 40 mg/kg, tolerable at a dose of 20 mg/kg, and very mild at a dose of 10 mg/kg. At the lowest dose it only occurred in 25% of subjects (16438). In some studies, beta-alanine has been given as frequently as 8 times per day so that each dose can be kept below 10 mg/kg (16438,16439). Other clinical research shows that taking beta-alanine in a tablet formulation eliminates the presence of parasthesias at a dose of 1.6 grams when compared with a solution made from powdered beta-alanine. This effect may be due to delayed absorption (97974,97975). Although paresthesias still occur with sustained-release formulations, their presence is less frequent when compared with immediate-release formulations (101029).
General
...Orally, bilberry fruit, juice, and extracts seem to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Dark-colored stools, flatulence, and gastrointestinal discomfort.
Gastrointestinal
...In one small clinical trial, mild-to-moderate flatulence was reported in 33% of patients taking sieved bilberries and concentrated bilberry juice (91506).
However, the patients in this study had ulcerative colitis, and the study lacked a control group, limiting the validity of this finding. In another small clinical study of males with age-related cognitive impairment, temporary adverse gastrointestinal (GI) effects were reported in 13% of patients drinking a combination of bilberry and grape juice. However, the adverse GI effect rate was identical in patients drinking a placebo juice (110641). A post-marketing surveillance report of 2295 patients using bilberry extract (Tegens) found that 1% of patients complained of GI discomfort and less than 1% experienced nausea or heartburn (35500).
Theoretically, fresh bilberry fruit may have laxative effects. One clinical trial noted an increased frequency of bowel movements following the administration of a combination formulation containing aerial agrimony parts, cinnamon quills, powdered bilberry fruit, and slippery elm bark (35462). It is unclear if these effects were due to bilberry, other ingredients, or the combination.
Other ...Orally, bilberry may cause discoloration of feces and the tongue. In one study, a dark-bluish to black discoloration of both the feces and the tongue was observed following consumption of sieved bilberries and concentrated bilberry juice. In one patient, a slight discoloration of the teeth has also been observed (91506). In another study, 50% of patients reported dark green stools after taking bilberry extract 700 mg twice daily for 4 weeks (104194).
General ...Orally, black currant is generally well-tolerated. Topically, there is a limited amount of information on the adverse effects of black currant.
Gastrointestinal ...Of 2154 patients with hyperlipidemia taking black currant seed oil 1. 8 grams twice daily for 6 weeks, 8 reports of mild diarrhea were considered related to the supplement. These adverse reactions were reported 2-10 days after beginning treatment with black currant seed oil (17638).
General ...Blackberry fruit is commonly consumed as a food without reports of adverse effects. However, a thorough evaluation of safety outcomes for blackberry when used as a medicine has not been conducted.
General
...Orally, blueberry is generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Constipation, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting with freeze-dried blueberries.
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, freeze-dried blueberries may cause constipation, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. In one clinical trial, 26% of patients taking freeze-dried blueberries 50 grams daily dropped out in the first week of the study due to gastrointestinal complaints (107278).
General
...Orally or intravenously, BCAAs are generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Abdominal distension, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting.
All routes of administration: High doses can lead to fatigue and loss of motor coordination.
Cardiovascular ...Orally, a single case of hypertension following the use of BCAAs has been reported (37143).
Dermatologic ...Orally, a single case of skin blanching following the use of BCAAs has been reported (681). It is not known if this effect was due to use of BCAAs or other factors.
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, BCAAs can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal distension. Nausea and diarrhea has been reported to occur in about 10% of people taking BCAAs (10117,37143,92643,97531).
Neurologic/CNS ...Orally and intravenously, BCAAs can cause fatigue and loss of motor coordination due to increased plasma ammonia levels (693,694,10117). Short-term use of 60 grams of BCAAs containing leucine, isoleucine, and valine for 7 days in patients with normal metabolic function seems to increase levels of ammonia, but not to toxic plasma levels (10117). However, liver function should be monitored with high doses or long-term use (10117). Due to the potential of increased plasma levels of ammonia and subsequent fatigue and loss of motor coordination, BCAAs should be used cautiously before or during activities where performance depends on motor coordination (75). Orally, BCAAs may also cause headache, but this has only been reported in one clinical trial (681).
General ...Broccoli is well tolerated when consumed as food. A thorough evaluation of safety outcomes when broccoli is taken as medicine has not been conducted.
Dermatologic ...Topically, allergic reactions to broccoli have caused contact dermatitis (14158).
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, loose stools, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and abdominal cramping have been reported following intake of broccoli seed and sprout extracts, particularly at high doses (114753).
Hepatic ...In one case report, a 56-year-old adult developed elevated transaminases, with alanine aminotransferase (ALT) 5. 8 times above normal, aspartate aminotransferase (AST) 2.4 times above normal, and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) 5.1 times above normal. This was thought to be related to the consumption of 800 mL of broccoli juice daily over a 4-week period. Values returned to normal 15 days after cessation of juice consumption (96191).
Immunologic ...Topically, allergic reactions to broccoli have caused contact dermatitis (14158).
General ...Orally, properly grown broccoli sprouts are well tolerated when consumed as foods (26424). However, improperly grown broccoli sprouts may be contaminated with bacteria. Broccoli sprout extract seems to be well tolerated (26422). However, a thorough evaluation of safety outcomes has not been conducted.
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, loose stools, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and abdominal cramping have been reported following intake of broccoli seed and broccoli sprout extracts, particularly at high doses (114753). Consuming raw broccoli sprouts that have been improperly grown may cause food-borne illness. Improperly grown broccoli sprouts may be contaminated with bacteria, including Listeria monocytogenes (26423), Salmonella (26424,26425), or Escherichia coli O157:H7 (26424,26425). Cooking broccoli sprouts eliminates this risk.
General ...Orally, Brussels sprout is generally well-tolerated when consumed in dietary amounts. Eating Brussels sprout or other types of fermentable carbohydrates can cause flatulence (26470).
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, eating Brussels sprout or other types of fermentable carbohydrates can cause flatulence (26470).
General ...There is currently a limited amount of information on the adverse effects of camu camu. A thorough evaluation of safety outcomes has not been conducted.
General
...Orally, carrot is well tolerated when consumed as a food.
It also seems to be generally well-tolerated when consumed as a medicine. Some people are allergic to carrot; allergic symptoms include anaphylactic, cutaneous, respiratory, and gastrointestinal reactions such as hives, swelling of the larynx, asthma, or diarrhea (25820,93606,106560). In infants, excessive consumption of carrot products in nursing bottles has been reported to cause extensive caries in the primary teeth (25817).
Topically, carrot has been associated with a case of phytophotodermatitis (101716).
Dental ...Orally, feeding carrot juice to infants, with or without sugar- or acid-containing beverages, has been reported to damage teeth and cause dental caries (25817).
Dermatologic ...Orally, excessive consumption of carrots or carrot-containing products can cause yellowing of the skin, which results from increased beta-carotene levels in the blood (25817). Carrots may cause allergic reactions in some patients. Allergic responses to carrot-containing foods include skin reactions such as hives, erythema, swelling, and/or papules (25820,96306).
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, carrots may cause allergic reactions in some patients. Allergic responses to carrot-containing foods can include gastrointestinal symptoms, such as diarrhea (25820).
Immunologic
...Orally, carrots may cause allergic reactions in some patients (25820,96306,106560).
Allergic responses to carrot-containing foods can include skin reactions such as hives, erythema, swelling, and/or papules (25820,96306). For one patient, treatment of skin lesions resolved after a month of oral antihistamines and topical steroids, and avoiding further contact with carrot (96306). Allergic responses to carrot-containing foods can also include gastrointestinal symptoms, such as diarrhea, and respiratory symptoms, such as swelling of the larynx or asthma (25820). In one case, a patient with a history of allergic rhinitis and asthma who had been successfully treated with subcutaneous immunotherapy and was tolerant of consumption of raw and cooked carrots developed rhinoconjunctivitis when handling carrots. Inhalation of dust particles and aerosols produced by food processing activities and containing allergens from the peel and pulp of carrots is thought to have sensitized the airway, producing a distinct form of respiratory food allergy in which there are typically no symptoms with ingestion (106560).
Topically, a female runner developed phytophotodermatitis, which was considered possibly associated with the inclusion of carrot in a sunscreen (Yes To Carrots Daily Facial Moisturizer with SPF 15; Yes to, Inc.) (101716).
Psychiatric ...Compulsive carrot eating is a rare condition in which the patient craves carrots. According to one case report, withdrawal symptoms include nervousness, cravings, insomnia, water brash, and irritability (25821).
General
...Orally, cassia cinnamon appears to be well-tolerated.
Significant side effects have not been reported in most patients.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Topically: Burning mouth, stomatitis.
Dermatologic
...In one clinical trial, a rash was reported in one patient taking cassia cinnamon 1 gram daily for 90 days (17011).
In one case, a 58-year-old female with a documented allergy to topically applied cinnamic alcohol presented with eyelid dermatitis, which was found to be a manifestation of systemic contact dermatitis to cinnamon in the diet. Symptoms improved in two days and completely cleared five days after discontinuing the addition of cinnamon to food products (95599). In other case reports, two adults presented with allergic contact cheilitis following the ingestion of chai tea with cinnamon and yogurt with cinnamon. Cinnamon components were confirmed as the causative allergic agents with patch tests, and both cases of allergic contact cheilitis completely resolved upon cessation of the cinnamon-containing products (113516,113515).
Topically, allergic skin reactions and stomatitis from toothpaste flavored with cassia cinnamon have been reported (11915,11920). Intraoral allergic reactions with symptoms of tenderness and burning sensations of the oral mucosa have also been reported in patients using breath fresheners, toothpaste, mouthwash, candy, or chewing gum containing cinnamon, cinnamic aldehyde or cinnamic alcohol as flavoring agents. Glossodynia, or burning mouth syndrome, has also been reported in a 62-year-old female who ate apples dipped in cinnamon nightly (95598), and allergic contact dermatitis has been reported in a teenage female using a homemade cinnamon sugar face scrub (95596).
Endocrine ...In one clinical trial, a hypoglycemic seizure was reported in one patient taking cassia cinnamon 1 gram daily for 3 months. The event occurred one day after enrolling in the study (89648). It is unclear if cassia cinnamon caused this event.
Hepatic ...There is some concern about the safety of ingesting large amounts of cassia cinnamon for extended durations due to its coumarin content. Coumarin can cause hepatotoxicity in animal models (15299). In humans, very high doses of coumarin from 50-7000 mg/day can result in hepatotoxicity that resolves when coumarin is discontinued (15302). In clinical trials, taking cassia cinnamon 360 mg to 12 grams daily for 3 months did not significantly increase levels of aspartate transaminase (AST) or alanine transaminase (ALT) (21918,96280,108259). However, in one case report, acute hepatitis with elevated AST and ALT occurred in a 73-year-old female who started taking a cinnamon supplement (dose unknown) one week prior to admission. The cinnamon supplement was added on to high-dose rosuvastatin, which may have led to additive adverse hepatic effects. After discontinuing both products, liver function returned to normal, and the patient was able to restart rosuvastati without further complications (97249). In most cases, ingestion of cassia cinnamon won't provide a high enough amount of coumarin to cause significant toxicity; however, in especially sensitive people, such as those with liver disease or taking potentially hepatotoxic agents, prolonged ingestion of large amounts of cassia cinnamon might exacerbate the condition.
Immunologic ...An unspecified allergic reaction was reported in one patient taking cassia cinnamon 1 gram daily for 3 months (89648).
General
...Orally, chokeberry seems to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Constipation, diarrhea, nausea, stomach cramps, vomiting.
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, chokeberry juice may cause adverse gastrointestinal effects. In one small clinical study, around 14% of patients reported constipation, diarrhea, or gastrointestinal motility issues while drinking 100 mL of chokeberry juice daily for 90 days (92375). In another small clinical study, around 53% of patients reported diarrhea, loss of appetite, nausea, stomachache, stomach cramps, or vomiting while drinking 100 mL of chokeberry juice twice daily for 6 weeks (111119).
General
...Orally, coconut is generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally and topically: Allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis and hives.
Dermatologic ...Orally or topically, coconut and coconut palm pollen may cause allergic skin reactions such as urticaria and hives (12359,26561,26572,95806).
Immunologic ...Although coconut is a stone fruit, in the US, coconut is grouped with tree nuts for allergen declaration purposes (107673). Orally or topically, coconut can cause allergic reactions ranging from hives to anaphylaxis in those with hypersensitivity to coconut or its pollen (12359,26561,95806,95807,95808,107673,107674). Based on a review of hospital records in the US, most reactions to coconut are due to oral exposure, including through breastfeeding, with about 50% of reactions associated with anaphylaxis (107673). In addition, there have been numerous case reports of anaphylaxis from coconut in the literature, with most cases presenting in infancy or early childhood (95808,107674). In one case report, a 12-year-old child with asthma and allergic rhinitis experienced anaphylaxis with difficulty breathing, wheezing and vomiting, from eating a piece of coconut for the first time (95808). In another case report, a 6-year-old child who had previously had urticaria and hives from applying coconut oil experienced throat swelling and anaphylaxis after eating food containing coconut (95806). Coconut may also play a role in cross-sensitization. In a case report, a 17-year-old male who experienced prickling in the mouth after ingesting coconut soon after experienced an anaphylactic reaction to buckwheat. The child was found to be sensitized to both coconut and buckwheat (95807).
General
...Orally and topically, coconut oil is generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Increased cholesterol levels.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
All routes of administration: Allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis, in sensitive individuals.
Cardiovascular ...Due to its high saturated fat content, there has been some speculation that consuming coconut oil might increase cholesterol levels and the risk of cardiovascular disease. Several population and clinical studies have found that consuming coconut oil increases total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in some patients (12361,14407,17935,17940,94451,94452,99103,101877,101879,106489,106494). In patients with normal to high cholesterol levels, consuming a daily diet providing 30% to 36% of calories from fat, of which 46% to 66% is from coconut oil, for 4-12 weeks increases total cholesterol by about 12-15 mg/dL, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by about 9-12 mg/dL, and HDL cholesterol by 3-6 mg/dL when compared to a diet containing vegetable oils, especially those rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (17935,94451,94452,101877,106489). In some cases, these cholesterol effects are similar to those seen in patients consuming a similar diet containing butter or beef fat (12361,17935,94451,99103,101879). Despite the potential effects of coconut oil on cholesterol levels, population research has not found an association with coconut oil consumption and risk of adverse cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction or angina (14407,96205). Advise patients not to rely on coconut oil as a "healthy" alternative to other saturated fats.
Dermatologic ...In one case report, a 6-year-old child developed urticaria and hives from applying coconut oil to the skin. The child had been exposed to coconut oil consistently since 2 weeks of age, indicating sensitization over the course of regular exposure (95806). In clinical research, one patient reported localized pruritus immediately after applying a combination of coconut oil, anise oil, and ylang ylang (13483). It is unclear if this event was due to coconut oil, other ingredients, or the combination. Also, it is possible that this was an idiosyncratic event.
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and gastroenteritis have been reported rarely (101877,115879).
Hepatic ...Orally, taking virgin coconut oil in the diet for 28 days modestly increased levels of liver enzymes in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, it is unclear if this was due to the coconut oil or to the illness (107664).
Immunologic
...Several cases of allergic reactions have been reported for patients who consumed coconut fruit.
In some of the cases, the patients were previously diagnosed with sensitivity to other tree nuts, including peanuts, so cross-sensitivity is suspected. In a separate case report, a 17-year-old male was found to be sensitized to both coconut and buckwheat, indicating a possible cross-sensitivity between the two allergens (95808). In other cases, the patients did not show sensitivity to any other allergens, so the patients were considered to have a single allergy to coconut fruit (12359,12360).
Because coconut oil is derived from coconut fruit, ingestion of coconut oil may theoretically cause allergic reactions in patients with confirmed allergy to coconut fruit. In one case report, a 6-year-old child who had previously experienced urticaria and hives from applying coconut oil to the skin experienced throat swelling and anaphylaxis after eating food containing coconut, indicating a sensitivity to both the fruit and the oil via both topical application and ingestion (95806). However, allergic reactions to coconut appear to occur significantly less often than allergies to other food items such as wheat, milk, soy, or peanut (14408).
General
...Orally, caffeinated or decaffeinated coffee is well tolerated in moderate amounts.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Drinking coffee containing caffeine can cause agitation, anxiety, chest pain, diuresis, gastric distress, headache, insomnia, nervousness, premature heart rate, ringing in the ears, and vomiting. These effects are more likely with increasing intake of caffeine and in certain populations (e.g., children, elderly). With chronic caffeine use, especially in large amounts, habituation, tolerance, and psychological dependence can occur.
Abrupt discontinuation of caffeine may result in physical withdrawal symptoms, including anxiety, decreased physical energy, depressed mood, difficulty concentrating, drowsiness, fatigue, headache, irritability, reduced alertness, and rhinorrhea.
Rectally: Coffee enemas have been linked to proctocolitis, severe electrolyte abnormalities, and septicemia leading to death.
Cardiovascular
...Orally, coffee containing caffeine can cause chest pain and premature heartbeat (8042,111045).
These effects are more likely with increasing intake of caffeine and in certain populations (e.g., children, elderly) (8042). Excessive doses of caffeine can cause massive catecholamine release and subsequent sinus tachycardia (11832,11838,13734,13735).
Although acute administration of caffeine can cause increased blood pressure, regular consumption does not seem to increase either blood pressure or pulse, even in hypertensive patients (1451,1452,2722,13739,105312). Drinking one or more cups of caffeinated coffee daily also doesn't seem to increase the risk of developing hypertension in habitual coffee drinkers (8033,13739,111037).
Epidemiological research has found that regular caffeine intake of up to 400 mg daily, or approximately 4 cups of caffeinated coffee, is not associated with an increased incidence of atrial fibrillation (38018,38076,91028,91034,97451,97453,105310), atherosclerosis (38033), cardiac ectopy (91127), stroke (37804), ventricular arrhythmia (95948,97453,105310), or cardiovascular disease (CVD) in general (37805,98806,104882). However, some observational research suggests that drinking at least 1 cup of coffee per week is associated with a 40% increased risk of atrial fibrillation, with the highest incidence of atrial fibrillation occurring in adults consuming at least 6 cups daily (111042). Also, one large, observational study found a J-shaped association between regular coffee consumption and the risk of developing acute coronary syndromes. Moderate consumption of less than 300 mL daily (about 1.3 cups) was associated with a lower risk of developing acute coronary syndromes, whereas regular consumption of 300 mL daily or more was associated with an increased risk (11318). In contrast, other observational research in people without a history of CVD has found that drinking more than 6 cups of coffee daily does not appear to be associated with an increased risk of developing coronary heart disease (14343). Also, in people with a history of CVD, population research has found that coffee consumption is associated with a reduction in CVD-related mortality (97373,97374,103997,103998,104594,104595,104882,105308,105311,105313,105314); however not all research agrees (112735). However, in current smokers with a history of acute coronary syndrome, consuming more than 3 cups of coffee daily is associated with more than a two-fold increased risk of overall mortality (105313). Also, population research in patients with severe hypertension, but not mild hypertension, suggests that drinking at least two cups of coffee daily is associated with a 2-fold increase in CVD mortality compared with non-coffee drinkers (111027).
Caffeine intake may pose a greater cardiovascular risk to subjects who are not regular caffeine users. Population research suggests that drinking caffeinated coffee might trigger a myocardial infarction (MI) in some people. People who drink one or fewer cups of coffee daily and are sedentary and have multiple risk factors for heart disease have a significantly increased risk of MI within an hour after drinking coffee. However, this risk appears diminished in people who routinely consume greater amounts of coffee on a daily basis (14497). In another population study, caffeinated coffee consumption was associated with an increased risk of ischemic stroke in subjects who didn't regularly drink coffee (38102).
Boiled coffee that is prepared without a filter appears to increase serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels (1353,4200,8036,8539). Drinking one liter of strong, unfiltered coffee daily for two weeks can raise serum cholesterol by 10% and serum triglycerides by 36% (1353). Tell patients to use coffee filters since these effects do not seem to occur with filtered coffee (4200,8036,8539).
Coffee can adversely affect homocysteine levels. Higher homocysteine levels have been associated with CVD. One liter of unfiltered strong coffee daily for two weeks can increase plasma homocysteine levels by 10% (1353). The same amount of filtered strong coffee appears to raise plasma homocysteine levels by 20%, although there have been no head-to-head comparisons of filtered versus unfiltered coffee (3344).
Dermatologic ...Some researchers suggest symptoms such as flushed face occur during caffeine withdrawal. However, withdrawal symptoms may be due to nonpharmacological factors related to knowledge and expectation of effects. Clinically significant symptoms caused by caffeine withdrawal may be uncommon (2723,11839).
Endocrine
...Orally, excessive doses of caffeine can cause massive catecholamine release and subsequent metabolic acidosis, hyperglycemia, and ketosis (13734).
Other symptoms include hypokalemia and respiratory alkalosis (11832,11838,13735).
Some evidence shows that caffeine, a constituent of coffee, is associated with fibrocystic breast disease, breast cancer, and endometriosis in females; however, this is controversial since findings are conflicting (8043). Restricting caffeine intake in patients with fibrocystic breast conditions doesn't seem to affect breast nodularity, swelling, or pain (8996). Population research suggests that exposure to caffeine is not associated with an increased risk of endometriosis (91035).
A population analysis of the Women's Health Initiative observational study has found no association between consumption of caffeine-containing beverages, such as coffee, and the incidence of invasive breast cancer in models adjusted for demographic, lifestyle, and reproductive factors (108806). Also, a dose-response analysis of 2 low-quality observational studies has found that high consumption of caffeine is not associated with an increased risk of breast cancer (108807).
Gastrointestinal
...Orally, coffee containing caffeine can cause gastric distress and vomiting.
These effects are more likely with increasing intake of caffeine and in certain populations (e.g., children, elderly) (8042,13734). There is also some evidence that consumption of three or more cups of caffeinated coffee might increase the risk of Helicobacter pylori infection (8034).
Caffeine withdrawal symptoms such as nausea and vomiting have been described. However, these symptoms may be due to nonpharmacological factors related to knowledge and expectation of effects. Clinically significant symptoms caused by caffeine withdrawal may be uncommon (2723,11839).
Rectally, at least 5 cases of proctocolitis related to the use of coffee enemas have been reported (96868,103273).
Genitourinary ...The caffeine found in coffee is a known diuretic and may increase voiding, give a sense of urgency, and irritate the bladder (37874,37961,104580). In males with lower urinary tract symptoms, caffeine intake increased the risk of interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome (38115). Excessive caffeine consumption may worsen premenstrual syndrome. Consumption of up to 10 cups of caffeinated drinks daily has been associated with increased severity of premenstrual syndrome (38177).
Hematologic
...There is evidence that coffee containing caffeine shortens whole blood fibrinolysis time (8030).
Rectally, coffee enemas have been linked to severe electrolyte abnormalities leading to death (3026,3347,3349,6652)
Hepatic ...Boiled coffee that is prepared without a filter appears to increase liver aminotransferase enzymes. Tell patients to use coffee filters since these effects do not seem to occur with filtered coffee (8539).
Immunologic
...Caffeine can cause anaphylaxis in sensitive individuals, although true IgE-mediated caffeine allergy seems to be relatively rare (11315).
Rectally, coffee enemas have been linked to septicemia leading to death (3026,3347,3349,6652).
Musculoskeletal
...Orally, there is preliminary evidence that use of greater than four cups of coffee daily can increase the risk of rheumatoid factor positive rheumatoid arthritis, but this association has not been confirmed (6482).
Epidemiological evidence regarding the relationship between caffeine use and the risk for osteoporosis is contradictory. Caffeine can increase urinary excretion of calcium (2669,10202,11317). Females identified with a genetic variant of the vitamin D receptor appear to be at an increased risk for the detrimental effect of caffeine on bone mass (2669). However, moderate caffeine intake of less than 400 mg daily does not seem to significantly increase osteoporosis risk in most postmenopausal adults with normal calcium intake (2669,6025,10202,11317,98806).
Caffeine withdrawal symptoms, such as muscle tension and muscle pains, have been described. However, these symptoms may be due to nonpharmacological factors related to knowledge and expectation of effects. Clinically significant symptoms caused by caffeine withdrawal may be uncommon (2723,11839).
Neurologic/CNS
...Orally, coffee containing caffeine can cause agitation, headache, insomnia, and nervousness, .
These effects are more likely with increasing intake of caffeine and in certain populations (e.g., children, elderly) (8042,11832,11838,13734,13735).
Combining ephedra with coffee can increase the risk of adverse effects, due to the caffeine contained in coffee. Jitteriness, seizures, and temporary loss of consciousness have been associated with the combined use of ephedra and caffeine (2729).
Some researchers suggest that symptoms such as headache; tiredness and fatigue; decreased energy, alertness, and attentiveness; drowsiness; decreased contentedness; difficulty concentrating; irritability; and lack of clear-headedness are typical of caffeine withdrawal (13738). Withdrawal symptoms such as delirium, nervousness, and restlessness have also been described. However, these symptoms may be due to nonpharmacological factors related to knowledge and expectation of effects. Clinically significant symptoms caused by caffeine withdrawal may be uncommon (2723,11839).
Ocular/Otic ...Orally, coffee containing caffeine can cause ringing in the ears. This is more likely with increasing intake of caffeine and in certain populations (e.g., children, elderly) (8042,13734). Coffee containing caffeine also increases intraocular pressure, starting about 30 minutes after consumption and persisting for at least 90 minutes. Decaffeinated coffee does not appear to affect intraocular pressure (8540).
Oncologic
...The association between consumption of coffee and pancreatic cancer is controversial.
Coffee may increase the incidence of some types of pancreatic cancers, but it may decrease other types (8535,8536,8537). Some studies do not support this association, especially in patients that have never smoked (8038,8040,93878,103999). Patients who are at risk of pancreatic cancer (pancreatitis) should limit their consumption of coffee.
People who consume 2-4 or more cups of caffeinated coffee dail might have a significantly increased risk of developing lung cancer (13191,90177). But drinking decaffeinated coffee seems to be associated with a decreased risk of lung cancer (13191).
Coffee consumption has also been associated at various times with an increased risk of breast cancer, bladder cancer, colon cancer, and other types of cancers, but there's no good evidence that coffee consumption increases cancer risk (8039,8040,8041). Most human studies that have examined caffeine or coffee intake have found that they do not play a role in the development of various cancers, including breast or most gastric cancers (91054,91076,98806). However, drinking caffeinated coffee might increase the risk of gastric cardia cancer (91076).
Psychiatric ...Orally, coffee containing caffeine can cause anxiety. This is more likely with increasing intake of caffeine and in certain populations (e.g., children, elderly) (8042,13734). With chronic use, especially in large amounts, habituation, tolerance, and psychological dependence can occur (3719). Other researchers suggest symptoms such as depressed mood are typical of caffeine withdrawal (13738). However, withdrawal symptoms may be due to nonpharmacological factors related to knowledge and expectation of effects. Clinically significant symptoms caused by caffeine withdrawal may be uncommon (2723,11839).
Pulmonary/Respiratory ...Caffeine withdrawal symptoms such as rhinorrhea have been described. However, these symptoms may be due to nonpharmacological factors related to knowledge and expectation of effects. Clinically significant symptoms caused by caffeine withdrawal may be uncommon (2723,11839).
Renal ...Orally, coffee containing caffeine can cause diuresis. This is more likely with increasing intake of caffeine and in certain populations (e.g., children, elderly) (8042,13734).
General
...Orally, creatine is generally well-tolerated.
Topically, a thorough evaluation of safety outcomes has not been conducted.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Dehydration, diarrhea, gastrointestinal upset, muscle cramps, and water retention.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Case reports have raised concerns about interstitial nephritis, renal insufficiency, rhabdomyolysis, and venous thrombosis.
Cardiovascular
...Some research suggests that creatine supplementation can cause edema.
In a randomized controlled trial, 26% of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) receiving creatine 10 grams daily reported edema after 2 months of treatment compared to 9% with placebo. The difference between groups was statistically significant at 2 months but not at month 4 and beyond. Creatine is believed to cause slight water retention, which may have been more apparent in patients who were immobilized due to ALS (46647). While this adverse drug reaction did not lead to worsening cardiac function in these patients, theoretically, creatine-related water retention could worsen congestive heart failure or hypertension.
There is one case report of lone atrial fibrillation in a 30-year-old male vegetarian. He started powdered creatine 20 grams daily for 5 days, followed by 2.5 grams daily for a month. However, he discontinued powdered creatine due to severe cramping and diarrhea, and reinitiated creatine supplementation a month later with an encapsulated formulation. Aside from gelatin in the capsule, creatine was the only ingredient listed in both formulations. During the loading dose phase, the patient developed dyspnea and palpitations and was diagnosed with lone atrial fibrillation in the emergency department. Symptoms resolved with treatment and supplement discontinuation (13187). Theoretically, alterations in electrolyte balance due to dehydration or diarrhea could lead to conduction abnormalities and arrhythmia; however, in this case, the patient had normal electrolyte levels. Contaminants in dietary supplements might also be responsible for adverse reactions; this specific creatine product was not tested for contaminants. It remains unclear whether creatine was associated with this event.
Theoretically, taking creatine nitrate might reduce blood pressure and heart rate due to its nitrate component. However, clinical research shows that creatine nitrate 12 grams daily for 7 days followed by 3 grams daily for 21 days does not lower blood pressure or heart rate acutely or chronically when compared to creatine monohydrate or placebo (95959).
Dermatologic
...In a small clinical trial of older, healthy males, one subject out of the 10 receiving creatine 5 grams four times daily for 10 days followed by 4 grams daily for 20 days reported a skin rash during the study.
The type and severity of rash and whether it resolved after creatine was discontinued were not discussed (4572). Also, skin rash has been reported by patients taking celecoxib and creatine; however, whether this effect was due to creatine or celecoxib is unclear (46706).
Topically, burning, itching, redness, irritation, and perception of changes in skin temperature have been reported (104669).
Endocrine ...Creatine may influence insulin production (11330). In human research, insulin levels increased 120 and 240 minutes after creatine supplementation (46760); however, there was no effect in another trial (46732). In a clinical study, 0.3 grams/kg of creatine daily for one week significantly increased cortisol levels by 29%. However, the levels returned to baseline at week 2 (46615).
Gastrointestinal
...Some small clinical studies have reported diarrhea and vomiting with oral creatine supplementation (4584,11332,46562,46684,46698,46704,104673).
Also, gastrointestinal distress, transient abdominal discomfort, constipation, heartburn, and nausea have been reported by a small number of individuals in randomized, controlled clinical trials (4572,11332,46527,46528,46573,46589,46622,46668,46684,46695), (46704,46771,95964,104668,104669,104673,108316). However, most high-quality clinical research shows that creatine does not increase the incidence of gastrointestinal upset (103102,103278,103279).
Undissolved creatine powder may cause gastroenteritis (1368). Additionally, simultaneous intake of creatine and caffeine powder may increase the occurrence of gastrointestinal distress (95964).
Hematologic ...There are two case reports of creatine-related venous thrombosis in otherwise healthy adults. In the first case, an active 18-year-old male who had been taking an unspecified dose of creatine daily for 3 months was diagnosed with venous thrombosis via MRI. The patient reported increased thirst and fluid consumption when taking creatine. In the second case, an active 31-year-old male who had recently taken a 5-hour flight was diagnosed with deep vein thrombosis. He had been taking an unspecified dose of creatine. After stopping creatine and receiving anticoagulation therapy for 6 months, both patients' thromboses were resolved and did not recur. Researchers speculate that dehydration might be to blame for these adverse events, as dehydration increases the risk of thrombosis. In both cases, thrombophilic conditions were ruled out, and a temporal relationship between creatine consumption and thrombosis was established (90301). However, it remains unclear if creatine was responsible for these thrombotic events.
Hepatic
...Despite two case reports describing hepatic injury in patients taking creatine (46701,90319), meta-analyses and clinical studies specifically evaluating the safety of creatine have not identified an increased risk for hepatic injury (103278,103279).
In addition, population research suggests that there is not an association between creatine intake and liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, or hepatic steatosis. However, this study largely included subjects consuming less than 4 grams daily (112208).
One preliminary clinical trial specifically evaluated the effect of creatine loading and maintenance doses on hepatic function indices in healthy adults. No clinically significant changes in hepatic indices were reported in patients taking creatine loading doses of 20 grams daily for 5 days followed by maintenance doses of 3 grams daily for 8 weeks (46521). Another clinical study evaluated the impact of creatine monohydrate and creatine nitrate on liver function enzymes, showing no change in levels within 5 hours after the first dose of 12 grams or after continued consumption of 12 grams daily for 7 days followed by 3 grams daily for 21 days (95959). The patients that experienced hepatic injury in the available case reports were also taking other exercise supplements. Whether the reported adverse hepatic effects were due to creatine or the other supplements patients were taking is unclear. Also, neither of these case reports addressed whether the supplements were tested for contamination (46701,90319).
Musculoskeletal ...Creatine-associated increase in body mass is well documented in randomized, controlled clinical trials and is often as large as 1-2 kg during the five-day loading period of creatine (2101,4569,4589,4591,4600,4605,46504,46561,46815,46827)(46830,46843,95962,103279,112201). This may be considered an unwanted adverse reaction in some individuals and a desired effect of supplementation in others. This weight gain may interfere with mass-dependent activities such as running and swimming (46504,46823). Muscle cramping due to creatine supplementation has been reported in controlled clinical trials and may result from water retention in skeletal muscle (2104,4572,4584,30915,46562,46695,46826,46827,104673). However, most high quality clinical research shows that creatine does not increase the incidence of musculoskeletal injuries or muscle cramping (103102). In one case report, rhabdomyolysis in a weight lifter using creatine 25 grams daily over a one-year period has been reported (12820). Another case report describes an adult male who developed acute compartment syndrome of the leg after regular consumption of an unspecified amount of creatine and cocaine (112210).
Neurologic/CNS ...In clinical research, thirst, sleepiness, mild headache, and syncope have been reported for patients taking creatine, although the events were uncommon (46578,46615,46820). More serious adverse events have been reported for patients taking creatine in combination with other ingredients. A case of ischemic stroke has been reported for an athlete who consumed creatine monohydrate 6 grams, caffeine 400-600 mg, ephedra 40-60 mg, and a variety of other supplements daily for 6 weeks (1275). In another case, a 26 year old male reported with a hemorrhagic stroke linked to taking the supplement Jack3d, which contains creatine, DMAA, schizandrol A, caffeine, beta-alanine, and L-arginine alpha-ketoglutarate (90318). It is likely that these adverse events were due to other ingredients, such as caffeine, ephedra, and DMAA, which are known to have stimulant and vasoconstrictive properties.
Oncologic ...Population research shows that use of muscle building supplements such as creatine, protein, and androstenedione is associated with an increased odds of testicular germ cell cancer. This risk appears to be more apparent in early users, those using two or more muscle building supplements, and those with long-term use of the supplements. The odds of testicular germ cell cancer may be increased by up to 155% in males taking both creatine and protein supplements (90329). The risk of testicular germ cell cancer from creatine alone is unclear from this study.
Psychiatric ...Anxiety, irritability, depression, aggression, and nervousness have been reported in clinical research for patients taking creatine, although the effects are not common (46518). A case of acute organic psychosis was reported in a 32-year-old soldier in Iraq who was consuming excessive amounts of caffeine coupled with use of creatine (Creatamax, MaxiNutrition) one tablet twice daily for 3 weeks plus a specific stimulant containing bitter orange, guarana seed extract, and St. John's wort extract (Ripped Fuel Ephedra Free, Twinlabs) two tablets three times daily for 2 days prior to admission. The psychosis was considered likely due to caffeine consumption in combination with the stimulant supplement rather than creatine (37982).
Renal
...Isolated cases of renal dysfunction in patients taking creatine have been reported, including a case of interstitial nephritis in a healthy male (184) and a case of renal insufficiency in a football player (46828).
In contrast to these cases, several clinical studies and case reports have shown that creatine does not affect markers of renal function in healthy adults (2120,3996,4573,16535,46735,46749,46758,46779,46813,95959,103279). Doses studied included 5- to 7-day loading regimens of 12 to 21 grams daily (2120,46813), or maintenance doses of 3-10 grams daily for up to 2 years (16535,46712,46758,95959). In two additional studies, creatine supplementation 15.75 grams for 5 days followed by 4.25 grams daily for 20 days with carbohydrate and protein ingestion led to no change of renal stress markers (46844). Other clinical research has shown that ingestion of creatine up to 30 grams daily for 5 years is not associated with an increased incidence of renal dysfunction (103102).
Other case reports involve patients with pre-existing renal dysfunction. For example, in one case, a patient with a history of recurrent renal failure developed relapsing steroid-responsive nephritis syndrome after taking creatine (1368,2118). In another case, a patient with diabetic nephropathy who was taking creatine and metformin developed severe metabolic acidosis and acute renal failure. It is unclear if creatine contributed to this event, as metformin alone is known to cause metabolic acidosis (46738). These case reports have raised concern that individuals with pre-existing renal dysfunction may be at increased risk for renal injury with creatine supplementation. However, no prospective clinical trials have been conducted in this population to clarify this concern.
In addition, two cases of acute kidney injury and hypercalcemia have been reported in 16 year old males that took 1-4 servings of creatine for less than 4 weeks; however, the creatine product contained unlabeled, very high doses of vitamin D, which is the likely cause of these symptoms (109739).
In one survey, 13% of male collegiate athletes taking creatine reported dehydration (4584). The Association of Professional Team Physicians has warned that creatine may cause dehydration, heat-related illnesses, and electrolyte imbalances, and reduce blood volume. Mild transient dehydration resulting in an elevated serum creatinine was also reported in a single person in a clinical trial (104672). However, a study found that creatine supplementation during preseason football training had no effect on fluid or electrolyte status (46845). Additionally, most high quality clinical research shows that creatine does not increase dehydration (103102). A theoretical increase in risk of dehydration due to intracellular fluid shifts has led most creatine manufacturers to caution about adequate hydration with creatine supplementation (4576).
Other
...There have been reports of heat intolerance with oral creatine supplementation (46505).
Increases in formaldehyde production have been reported with creatine use. A-24 year-old man taking supratherapeutic doses of creatine monophosphate in combination with an energy supplement developed malignant hyperthermia after undergoing anesthesia. His symptoms included tachycardia, hypertension, hypercarbia, and hyperthermia. Environmental factors are suspected to have played a role in the development of malignant hyperthermia, so whether this adverse event was due to creatine at all is unclear (46717).
In 1997, three collegiate wrestlers died after engaging in a rapid weight-loss program in order to qualify for competition (93628). Initially creatine supplementation was considered to have contributed to or caused these deaths (12820,93629); however, investigations by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) did not confirm this belief (12820,93630). It appears that only one of the three wrestlers had been using creatine. Instead, the deaths were related to drastic, short-term weight loss in which the wrestlers wore rubber suits, avoided hydration, and performed workouts in rooms with temperatures up to 33 °C (1368,93631).
General
...Orally, elderberry extracts prepared from ripe fruit seem to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: When adverse effects occur, they are likely due to ingestion of raw and unripe elderberries, or seeds, leaves, and other plant parts. Due to cyanogenic glycosides, these may cause nausea, vomiting, severe diarrhea, weakness, dizziness, numbness, and stupor. Cooking eliminates the toxin.
Gastrointestinal
...Orally, nausea and vomiting have been reported after consuming a specific elderberry and echinacea product
Vogel Bioforce AG) (95650). However, it is unclear if this was due to the elderberry or Echinacea contained in the product.
Raw and unripe elderberries, and the seeds, leaves, and other elder tree parts might cause nausea, vomiting, or severe diarrhea due to cyanogenic glycosides (17020,17021). Cooking eliminates the toxin.
Hepatic ...In one case report, a 60-year-old female with underlying autoimmune disease presented with autoimmune hepatitis after taking elderberry at an unknown dose for several years. The patient presented with nausea, jaundice, abdominal pain, and abdominal distention. Liver function tests returned to baseline 4 weeks after initiating treatment with prednisone 40 mg daily and discontinuing elderberry (110123).
Immunologic ...Elder tree pollen might cause an allergic reaction characterized by rhinitis and dyspnea in some patients who are allergic to grass pollen. These patients might also experience an allergic reaction to elderberry extracts (11095).
Neurologic/CNS ...Raw and unripe elderberries might cause weakness, dizziness, numbness, and stupor due to cyanogenic glycosides (17020,17021). Cooking eliminates the toxin.
General
...Orally, garlic is generally well tolerated.
Topically, garlic seems to be well tolerated. Intravenously, there is insufficient reliable information available about adverse effects.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Abdominal pain, body odor, flatulence, malodorous breath, and nausea. Allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.
Topically: Burns and dermatitis with fresh garlic.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Some case reports raise concerns about increased risk of bleeding with garlic.
Dermatologic
...Orally, garlic may cause pruritus (51316,51474,107239), flushing, and acne (107239).
Oral intake of a specific garlic product containing allicin (Allimax) has been associated with a case of pruritic rash (51474). Enteric-coated garlic tablets standardized to 1.5% allicin have also been associated with a case of pruritus (51316). Garlic has also been associated with a case of superficial pemphigus in a 49-year-old male with type 2 diabetes (51564). Garlic-induced oral ulcers have also been reported (51467).
Topically, garlic may cause contact dermatitis and urticaria (4833,5004,12635,51258,51265,51375,51403,51412,51459,51483)(51511,51512,51530,51616,51617,51618,111769), as well as contact cheilitis (51384). Fresh garlic may be more likely to elicit a reaction than garlic extract. Most reactions have resolved following withdrawal of garlic therapy. In one case report, applying crushed garlic on the neck to help ease a sore throat resulted in an itchy, burning, erythematous lesion in a young female patient. The lesion healed after one week of treatment with topical antibiotics, steroids, and antihistamine ointments (88390). Cases of occupational eczema or dermatitis have been reported in cooks (51303,51210), food handlers (51292), and caterers (51304). According to one case report, dermatitis appeared in chefs exposed to garlic (15033). Treatment with acitretin 25 mg daily or topical psoralen-ultraviolet A (PUVA) for 12 weeks proved effective in mitigating the symptoms. A 34-year-old female with a history of hand dermatitis and paronychia had a worsening of these conditions after peeling raw garlic. She had a positive skin patch test to fresh, raw garlic but not to any other tested allergens, and the conditions resolved when she avoided contact with garlic (105528). Topically, garlic may also cause chemical burns, usually within 12 hours of application. Second- and third-degree chemical burns have been reported in adults, children, and infants exposed to topical garlic, often as an unintended consequence of using garlic medicinally on the skin (585,4832,51226,51230,51252,51281,51377,51418,51468,51495,51536)(51558,51576,51577,88409,96006). A case of painful blisters on the soles of the feet of a 23-year-old Chinese female has been attributed to chemical burns caused by applying crushed raw garlic for 3 hours (51440). Topically, garlic may also cause hyperpigmentation, ulcers, necrotic lesions, facial flushing, and local irritation (4832,15030,51268,51269,108606). In one case report, applying crushed raw garlic to the palatal mucosa for several minutes to relieve mouth pain resulted in a chemical burn that produced a 3 cm necrotic ulcer in an adult female with trigeminal neuralgia (108606).
Gastrointestinal
...Orally, dehydrated garlic preparations or raw garlic may cause malodorous breath (51438,51444), body odor (732,1873,4784,4793,4795,4798,9201,10787,42692,49769)(51269,51316,51467,51602), abdominal pain or fullness, anorexia, diarrhea, constipation, flatulence, belching, heartburn, nausea, unpleasant taste, reflux, and bowel obstruction (1884,6457,6897,9201,49769,51269,51343,51380,51438,51442)(51450,51457,51466,51471,51474,51520,51593,51602,51623,88398)(88405,111766,114892).
Large quantities of garlic may damage the gastrointestinal tract. In one case report, a patient taking garlic for hypertension reported odynophagia and retrosternal pain after taking garlic without any water the previous day. An esophageal lesion 3 cm in length was detected upon endoscopy. The symptoms resolved 3 days after starting a liquid diet and taking lansoprazole 30 mg twice daily and sucralfate four times daily (88389). One case of bowel obstruction was reported in a 66-year-old male who ingested an entire garlic bulb (51525). Esophageal perforation has been reported in at least 17 individuals who consumed entire garlic cloves. In one case the perforation led to mediastinitis and death (102672).
Garlic has also been associated with eosinophilic infiltration of the gastrointestinal tract. In one case report a 42-year-old female presented with symptoms of eosinophilic gastroenteritis, which included pollinosis, asthma, diarrhea, heart burn, peripheral eosinophilia, and urticaria. After stopping use of garlic and sesame, the patient improved (51441). In a case report of eosinophilic esophagitis, garlic was determined to be the causative agent in a patient with long-standing gastrointestinal symptoms. The patient had attempted to treat upper gastrointestinal symptoms as gastrointestinal reflux disease without success for many years. Skin prick testing showed a positive reaction to garlic, of which the patient noted frequent consumption. Marked symptom improvement was noted within 3 weeks of garlic avoidance (88393).
Intravenously, garlic 1 mg/kg of body weight daily diluted into 500 mL saline and administered over 4 hours has been reported to cause abdominal discomfort, vomiting, diarrhea, nausea, anorexia, flatulence, weight loss, and garlicky body odor (51462).
Clinical research suggests that patients with metabolic syndrome taking 1600 mg of powdered garlic by mouth daily for 3 months may experience improved intestinal transit time when compared with placebo, suggesting that garlic powder may reduce symptoms of constipation (110722).
Genitourinary ...Orally, garlic might cause dysuria, hematuria, or polyuria (51438,51450,51467,113618). In one case, an older male with high dietary and supplemental garlic intake at doses of 300-5400 mg daily for 3-4 years developed severe hematuria with clots after undergoing a minimally invasive prostate procedure (113618).
Hematologic
...Oral use of dietary garlic or supplements containing garlic has caused platelet dysfunction, increased fibrinolytic activity, prolonged bleeding time, retrobulbar hemorrhage (bleeding behind the eye) postoperative bleeding, and spinal epidural hematoma (586,587,4801,4802,11325,51397,51473,51491,51532,51534)(51570,51584,51593,51594,113618).
Also, a case of kidney hematoma following extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy (SWL) has been reported in a patient with nephrolithiasis who took aged garlic (51630). A case of increased bleeding time that complicated epistaxis management has been reported in a patient taking garlic, aspirin, and milk thistle (51426).
Intravenously, garlic has been associated with the development of thrombophlebitis at the injection site (51462).
Immunologic
...There is a case report of an immediate sensitivity reaction to oral raw garlic, resulting in wheals, in a 31-year-old female.
The patient did not react to cooked garlic, and skin prick tests showed allergy only to raw garlic (96015). Researchers note that at least some allergens in raw garlic are heat labile (88392,96012,96015). This suggests that consuming cooked rather than raw garlic may help avoid this reaction in patients allergic to raw garlic. However, different people react to different allergens in garlic. At least some of these allergens are heat stable (96012). While rare, garlic-induced anaphylaxis has been reported (88392,96012).
Topically, allergic contact dermatitis has been reported in case reports (51406,51498,51510,51519,51560).
Musculoskeletal ...Orally, garlic has been associated with individual cases of gout and low back pain (51474,51467), but it is not clear if these adverse events can be attributed to garlic.
Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, dizziness, insomnia, headaches, diaphoresis, fever, chills, somnolence, increased appetite, euphoria, and weight loss have been reported with garlic (15032,42692,51316,51467,51471,51520). In one case, the smell of garlic was identified as a trigger for migraines in a 32-year-old female. The subject reported fortification spectra along with visual spots for a few seconds followed by instantaneous biparietal, crushing level (10/10) headaches upon exposure to the scent of garlic or onion (88404).
Pulmonary/Respiratory ...Garlic exposure, most notably in occupational settings, may cause asthma and other symptoms such as sneezing, nasal obstruction, rhinorrhea, and sinusitis (40661,51218). A case of minor hemoptysis has been reported for one patient with cystic fibrosis following intake of garlic capsules orally once daily for 8 weeks (51438). A 77-year-old female developed pneumonia related to the intake of one whole black garlic clove daily. The cloves were prepared by heating a whole garlic bulb in a pot for one month. Symptoms included dyspnea and coughing, and test results were positive for lymphocyte-induced stimulation by black garlic and raw garlic. The patient required treatment with oral steroids and was told to avoid garlic (96011).
General
...Orally, green tea is generally well tolerated when consumed as a beverage in moderate amounts.
Green tea extract also seems to be well tolerated when used for up to 12 months.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Bloating, constipation, diarrhea, dyspepsia, flatulence, and nausea.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Hepatotoxicity, hypokalemia, and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura have been reported rarely.
Cardiovascular
...Acute or short-term oral administration of green tea may cause hypertension (53719,54014,54065,54076,102716).
The risk may be greater for green tea products containing more than 200 mg epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) (90161). However, consumption of brewed green tea does not seem to increase blood pressure or pulse, even in mildly hypertensive patients (1451,1452). In fact, some evidence suggests that habitual tea consumption is associated with a reduced risk of developing hypertension (12518). Also, epidemiological research suggests there is no association of caffeine consumption with incidence of hypertension or with cardiovascular disease mortality in patients with hypertension (13739,111027). Rarely, green tea consumption may cause hypotension (53867).
Epidemiological research suggests that regular caffeine intake of up to 400 mg per day, or approximately 8 cups of green tea, is not associated with an increased incidence of atrial fibrillation (38018,38076,91028,91034,97451,97453), atherosclerosis (38033), cardiac ectopy (91127), stroke (37804), ventricular arrhythmia (95948,97453), and cardiovascular disease in general (37805,98806).
Combining ephedra with caffeine can increase the risk of adverse effects. Jitteriness, hypertension, seizures, and temporary loss of consciousness has been associated with the combined use of ephedra and caffeine (2729). There is also a report of ischemic stroke in an athlete who consumed ephedra 40-60 mg, creatine monohydrate 6 grams, caffeine 400-600 mg, and a variety of other supplements daily for 6 weeks (1275). In theory, combining caffeinated green tea with ephedra would have similar effects.
In a case report, the EGCG component of a specific weight loss supplement (Hydroxycut) was thought to be responsible for atrial fibrillation (54028). The patient was given two doses of intravenous diltiazem and was loaded with intravenous digoxin. Thirty-six hours after the last product dose, she spontaneously converted to normal sinus rhythm. The authors suggested that the block of the atrial-specific KCNA5 potassium channel likely played a role in this response.
A case of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura has been reported for a patient who consumed a weight loss product containing green tea (53978). She presented at the emergency department with a one-week history of malaise, fatigue, and petechiae of the skin. Twelve procedures of plasmapheresis were performed, and corticosteroid treatment was initiated. She was discharged after 20 days.
Dermatologic ...Orally, green tea may cause skin rashes or skin irritation (53731,54038,90161,90187,102716). Topically, green tea may cause local skin reactions or skin irritation, erythema, burning, itching, edema, and erosion (53731,54018,97136,104609,111031). A green tea extract ointment applied to the cervix can cause cervical and vaginal inflammation, vaginal irritation, and vulval burning (11310,36442,36438). When applied to external genital or perianal warts, a specific green tea extract ointment (Veregen, Bradley Pharmaceuticals) providing 15% kunecatechins can cause erythema, pruritus, local pain, discomfort and burning, ulceration, induration, edema, and vesicular rash (15067,53907).
Endocrine
...There is some concern that, due to its caffeine content, green tea may be associated with an increased risk of fibrocystic breast disease, breast cancer, and endometriosis.
However, this is controversial since findings are conflicting (8043). Restricting caffeine in females with fibrocystic breast conditions doesn't seem to affect breast nodularity, swelling, or pain (8996).
A population analysis of the Women's Health Initiative observational study has found no association between consumption of caffeine-containing beverages, such as green tea, and the incidence of invasive breast cancer in models adjusted for demographic, lifestyle, and reproductive factors (108806). Also, a dose-response analysis of 2 low-quality observational studies has found that high consumption of caffeine is not associated with an increased risk of breast cancer (108807).
A case of hypoglycemia has been reported for a clinical trial participant with type 2 diabetes who used green tea in combination with prescribed antidiabetes medication (54035).
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, green tea beverage or supplements can cause nausea, vomiting, abdominal bloating and pain, constipation, dyspepsia, reflux, morning anorexia, increased thirst, flatulence, and diarrhea. These effects are more common with higher doses of green tea or green tea extract, equivalent to 5-6 liters of tea per day (8117,11366,36398,53719,53867,53936,54038,54076,90139,90140)(90161,90175,90187,97131,97136,102716).
Hepatic
...There is concern that some green tea products, especially green tea extracts, can cause hepatotoxicity in some patients.
In 2017, the regulatory agency Health Canada re-issued a warning to consumers about this concern. The updated warning advises patients taking green tea extracts, especially those with liver disease, to watch for signs of liver toxicity. It also urges children to avoid taking products containing green tea extracts (94897). In 2020, the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) formed an expert panel to review concerns of green tea extract-related hepatotoxicity. Based on their findings, USP determined that any products claiming compliance with USP quality standards for green tea extract must include a specific warning on the label stating "Do not take on an empty stomach. Take with food. Do not use if you have a liver problem and discontinue use and consult a healthcare practitioner if you develop symptoms of liver trouble, such as abdominal pain, dark urine, or jaundice (yellowing of the skin or eyes)" (102722).
Numerous case reports of hepatotoxicity, primarily linked to green tea extract products taken in pill form, have been published. A minimum of 29 cases have been deemed at least probably related to green tea and 38 have been deemed possibly related. In addition, elevated liver enzymes have been reported in clinical research (14136,15026,53740,53746,53775,53859,54027,90139,90162,90164)(93256,94898,94899,102716,102720,102722,107158,111020,111644). Most cases of toxicity have had an acute hepatitis-like presentation with a hepatocellular-elevation of liver enzymes and some cholestasis. Onset of hepatotoxic symptoms usually occurs within 3 months after initiation of the green tea extract supplement, and symptoms can persist from 10 days to 1 year (95439,94897,94898,107158). Some reports of hepatotoxicity have been associated with consumption of green tea-containing beverages as well (15026,53742,54016,90125,90143).
In most cases, liver function returned to normal after discontinuation of the green tea product (14136,15026,53859,93256,107158). In one case, use of a specific ethanolic green tea extract (Exolise, Arkopharma) resulted in hepatotoxicity requiring a liver transplant. Due to concerns about hepatotoxicity, this specific extract was removed from the market by the manufacturer (14310). Since then, at least 5 cases of liver toxicity necessitating liver transplantation have been reported for patients who used green tea extracts (94898,107158). In another case, use of green tea (Applied Nutrition Green Tea Fat Burner) in combination with whey protein, a nutritional supplement (GNC Mega Men Sport), and prickly pear cactus resulted in acute liver failure (90162).
Despite the numerous reports of hepatotoxicity associated with the use of green tea products, the actual number of hepatotoxicity cases is low when the prevalence of green tea use is considered. From 2006 to 2016, liver injury from green tea products was estimated have occurred in only 1 out of 2.7 million patients who used green tea products (94897,95440).
In addition to the fact that green tea hepatotoxicity is uncommon, it is also not clear which patients are most likely to experience liver injury (94897,95440). The hepatotoxicity does not appear to be an allergic reaction or an autoimmune reaction (94897). It is possible that certain extraction processes, for example, ethanolic extracts, produce hepatotoxic constituents. However, in most cases, the presence of contaminants in green tea products has not been confirmed in laboratory analyses (90162).
Although results from one analysis of 4 small clinical studies disagrees (94899), most analyses of clinical data, including one conducted by the European Food Safety Association, found that hepatotoxicity from green tea products is associated with the dose of EGCG in the green tea product. Results show that daily intake of EGCG in amounts greater than or equal to 800 mg per day is associated with a higher incidence of elevated liver enzymes such as alanine transaminase (ALT) (95440,95696,97131). However, it is still unclear what maximum daily dose of EGCG will not increase liver enzyme levels or what minimum daily dose of EGCG begins to cause liver injury. In many cases of liver injury, the dose of green tea extract and/or EGCG is not known. Therefore, a minimum level of green tea extract or EGCG that would cause liver injury in humans cannot be determined (102722). Keep in mind that daily intake of green tea infusions provides only 90-300 mg of EGCG daily. So for a majority of people, green tea infusions are likely safe and unlikely to cause liver injury (95696). Also, plasma levels of EGCG are increased when green tea catechins are taken in the fasting state, suggesting that green tea extract should be taken with food (102722).
Until more is known, advise patients that green tea products, especially those containing green tea extract, might cause liver damage. However, let them know that the risk is uncommon, and it is not clear which products are most likely to cause the adverse effect or which patients are most likely to be affected. Advise patients with liver disease to consult their healthcare provider before taking products with green tea extract and to notify their healthcare provider if they experience symptoms of liver damage, including jaundice, dark urine, sweating, or abdominal pain (102722).
Immunologic ...Orally, matcha tea has resulted in at least one case of anaphylaxis related to green tea proteins. A 9-year-old male experienced systemic redness and hives, nausea, and anaphylaxis 60 minutes after consuming matcha tea-flavored ice cream (107169). The caffeine found in green tea can also cause anaphylaxis in sensitive individuals, although true IgE-mediated caffeine allergy seems to be relatively rare (11315).
Musculoskeletal
...Orally, the ingestion of the green tea constituent epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) or a decaffeinated green tea polyphenol mixture may cause mild muscle pain (36398).
There is some concern regarding the association between caffeinated green tea products and osteoporosis. Epidemiological evidence regarding the relationship between caffeinated beverages such as green tea and the risk for osteoporosis is contradictory. Caffeine can increase urinary excretion of calcium (2669,10202,11317). Females with a genetic variant of the vitamin D receptor appear to be at an increased risk for the detrimental effect of caffeine on bone mass (2669). However, moderate caffeine intake of less than 400 mg per day, or about 8 cups of green tea, doesn't seem to significantly increase osteoporosis risk in most postmenopausal adults with normal calcium intake (2669,6025,10202,11317).
Neurologic/CNS
...Orally, green tea can cause central nervous system stimulation and adverse effects such as headache, anxiety, dizziness, insomnia, fatigue, agitation, tremors, restlessness, and confusion.
These effects are more common with higher doses of green tea or green tea extract, equivalent to 5-6 liters of tea per day (8117,11366,53719,90139,102716). The green tea constituent epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) or decaffeinated green tea may also cause mild dizziness and headache (36398).
Combining ephedra with caffeine can increase the risk of adverse effects. Jitteriness, hypertension, seizures, temporary loss of consciousness, and hospitalization requiring life support has been associated with the combined use of ephedra and caffeine (2729).
Topically, green tea extract (Polyphenon E ointment) may cause headache when applied to the genital area (36442).
Psychiatric ...Green tea contains a significant amount of caffeine. Chronic use, especially in large amounts, can produce tolerance, habituation, and psychological dependence (11832). The existence or clinical importance of caffeine withdrawal is controversial. Some researchers think that if it exists, it appears to be of little clinical significance (11839). Other researchers suggest symptoms such as headache; tiredness and fatigue; decreased energy, alertness, and attentiveness; drowsiness; decreased contentedness; depressed mood; difficulty concentrating; irritability; and lack of clear-headedness are typical of caffeine withdrawal (13738). Withdrawal symptoms such as delirium, nausea, vomiting, rhinorrhea, nervousness, restlessness, anxiety, muscle tension, muscle pains, and flushed face have been described. However, these symptoms may be from nonpharmacological factors related to knowledge and expectation of effects. Clinically significant symptoms caused by caffeine withdrawal may be uncommon (2723,11839).
Pulmonary/Respiratory ...A case of granulomatous alveolitis with lymph follicles has been reported for a 67-year-old female who used green tea infusions to wash her nasal cavities for 15 years (54088). Her symptoms disappeared 2 months after stopping this practice and following an undetermined course of corticosteroids. In a case report, hypersensitivity pneumonitis was associated with inhalation of catechin-rich green tea extracts (54025). Occupational exposure to green tea dust can cause sensitization, which may include nasal and asthmatic symptoms (11365).
Renal ...There are two cases of hypokalemia associated with drinking approximately 8 cups daily of green tea in an elderly couple of Asian descent. The hypokalemia improved after reducing their intake by 50%. It is possible that this was related to the caffeine in the green tea (98418).
Other ...Orally, intake of a specific green tea extract product (Polyphenon E) may cause weight gain (90139).
General ...Orally, kale is generally well tolerated when consumed in amounts commonly found in foods. No adverse effects have been reported with medicinal use. However, a thorough evaluation of safety outcomes has not been conducted.
General
...Orally, L-citrulline seems to be generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Gastrointestinal discomfort, heartburn.
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, gastrointestinal intolerance, stomach discomfort, and heartburn have been reported with L-citrulline use (94955,94963,94966).
Genitourinary ...Orally, 2 of 25 patients with pulmonary hypertension reported increased urinary frequency and edema while taking 1 gram of powdered L-citrulline in water daily (94963).
Pulmonary/Respiratory ...Orally, 2 of 25 patients with pulmonary hypertension reported cough while taking 1 gram of powdered L-citrulline in water daily (94963).
General
...Orally, mangosteen is generally well tolerated.
Topically, no adverse effects have been reported. However, a thorough evaluation of safety outcomes has not been conducted.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Lactic acidosis.
Dermatologic ...Orally, mangosteen extract up to 560 mg daily has been reported to cause skin rash. It is not known if this side effect was related to mangosteen (97877).
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, mangosteen extract up to 560 mg daily has been reported to cause constipation, abnormal stool, abdominal discomfort, abdominal bloating, salivation, nausea and vomiting, and diarrhea. It is not known if these side effects were related to mangosteen (97877).
Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, mangosteen extract up to 560 mg daily has been reported to cause mild tiredness, headache, dizziness, and malaise. It is not known if these side effects were related to mangosteen (97877).
Pulmonary/Respiratory ...Orally, mangosteen extract up to 560 mg daily has been reported to cause dry throat, flu-like symptoms, cough, and nasal congestion. It is not known if these side effects were related to mangosteen (97877).
Renal ...Orally, mangosteen extract up to 560 mg daily has been reported to cause abnormal urination. It is not known if this side effect was related to mangosteen (97877). In one case report, a patient with chronic kidney disease and metabolic syndrome consumed mangosteen juice daily for 12 months and later presented with severe lactic acidosis. The juice was reported to contain 250 mg of mangosteen with 25 mg alpha-mangostin per ounce. Alpha-mangostin appears to inhibit mitochondrial function, disrupting the electron transport chain and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production, causing accumulation of reactive oxygen species and inducing apoptosis. Researchers speculate that these effects might have led to lactic acidosis in this patient (16399).
Other ...Orally, mangosteen extract up to 560 mg daily has been reported to cause weight loss. It is not known if this side effect was related to mangosteen (97877).
General
...Orally, niacinamide is well tolerated in amounts typically found in food.
When used topically and orally in higher doses, niacinamide seems to be generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Dizziness, drowsiness, itching, gastrointestinal disturbances, headache, and rash.
Topically: Burning sensation, itching, and mild dermatitis.
Dermatologic ...Orally, large doses of niacinamide are associated with occasional reports of rashes, itching, and acanthosis nigricans (4880,11695,11697,14504,107709), though a meta-analysis of 19 clinical studies suggests that dermatological adverse event rates are similar between niacinamide and control (110497). Topically, application of niacinamide in a cream has been reported to cause a burning sensation, itching and pruritus, crusting, and mild dermatitis (93357,93360,110501,110498).
Endocrine ...Orally, niacinamide in high doses, 50 mg/kg daily, has been associated with modestly higher insulin requirements in patients with type 1 diabetes, when compared with taking niacinamide 25 mg/kg daily. Theoretically, high-dose niacinamide might increase insulin resistance, although to a lesser extent than niacin (4881,14512).
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, large doses of niacinamide can cause gastrointestinal disturbances including nausea, vomiting, heartburn, anorexia, epigastric pain, flatulence, and diarrhea (6243,11694,11695,11696,11697,107709,110497,113682).
Hematologic ...Orally, niacinamide supplementation might increase the risk for thrombocytopenia in patients undergoing hemodialysis (98940,107709). A meta-analysis of small clinical studies shows that taking niacinamide during hemodialysis to reduce phosphate levels is associated with a 2.8-fold increased risk for thrombocytopenia when compared with placebo. In one of the included studies, platelet levels returned to normal within 20 days after niacinamide discontinuation (98940).
Hepatic ...Orally, older reports of elevated liver function tests with high doses of niacinamide (3 grams or more daily) have raised concerns about liver toxicity. However, newer studies have not reported this concern; it is possible that some of these cases were due to contamination with niacin (4880,11694,11695,14503).
Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, large doses of niacinamide can cause dizziness, drowsiness, and headaches (11694,11695,11696,11697,107709).
General
...Orally, onion is well tolerated.
Topically, onion is generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Abdominal pain, heartburn.
Topically: Eczema, irritation.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
All ROAs: Anaphylaxis in sensitive individuals.
Dermatologic ...Topically, frequent contact with onions can result in hand eczema, pemphigus, sensitization, and irritation (18,5004,51303,67066,67093).
Gastrointestinal ...The consumption of large quantities of onions or onion powder can cause stomach distress or heartburn (18,95155,104772). Stomach distress from onion powder appears to be transient (104772). In one case report, consumption of raw onions led to esophageal spasm (66841).
Immunologic ...Allergy to onion is rare, although there are reports of symptoms to both oral and topical exposure (41752,101743). In one case, oral exposure or the aroma of onions caused the sensation of throat closing in an allergic woman (88404). In a 35-year-old man, cooked onion ingestion triggered anaphylaxis (101742). In another case, the smell of onion was identified as a trigger for migraines in a 32-year-old female. Because the patient had a positive allergy skin test for onion, allergenic or immunogenic mechanisms were considered to be the origin of the migraines (88404).
Ocular/Otic ...Exposure to onion aroma can cause excessive tearing (67049).
General
...Orally, oregano is well tolerated when used in amounts typically found in foods.
There is currently a limited amount of information available about the safety of oregano when used in larger amounts as medicine.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Gastrointestinal upset.
Topically: Dermatitis in sensitive individuals.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Systemic allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis, in sensitive individuals.
Dermatologic ...Oregano has been reported to cause allergic contact dermatitis (46902). Topically, oregano oil in concentrations of greater than 1% has been reported to cause irritation when applied to mucous membranes (67348,88188).
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, large amounts of oregano can cause gastrointestinal upset. Concentrated, non-emulsified oil of oregano can cause localized irritation of the gastrointestinal tract (6878).
Immunologic ...Systemic allergic reactions have been reported with oregano. A 45-year-old male developed pruritus, respiratory difficulty, hypotension, swelling of the lips and tongue, and facial edema after ingesting pizza seasoned with oregano. He had 2 similar episodes after ingesting foods seasoned with thyme, another member of the Lamiaceae family. He did not react to similar foods without the seasoning, and he had positive skin tests to plants of the Lamiaceae family (3705).
General ...Orally and intravenously, quercetin seems to be well tolerated in appropriate doses. Topically, no adverse effects have been reported. However, a thorough evaluation of safety outcomes has not been conducted.
Gastrointestinal ...Intravenous administration of quercetin is associated with nausea and vomiting (9564).
Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, quercetin may cause headache and tingling of the extremities (481,111500). Intravenously, quercetin may cause pain at the injection site. Injection pain can be minimized by premedicating patients with 10 mg of morphine and administering amounts greater than 945 mg/m2 over 5 minutes (9564). In addition, intravenous administration of quercetin is associated with flushing and sweating (9564).
Pulmonary/Respiratory ...Intravenous administration of quercetin at doses as high as 2000 mg/m2 is associated with dyspnea that may persist for up to 5 minutes (9564).
Renal ...Intravenously, nephrotoxicity has been reported with quercetin in amounts greater than 945 mg/m2 (9563,9564,70304).
General
...Orally, red raspberry fruit is well tolerated.
There is currently a limited amount of information on the adverse effects of red raspberry leaf.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Diarrhea, gastrointestinal upset, and epigastric pain. However, these adverse effects do not commonly occur with typical doses.
Dermatologic ...A liquid containing red raspberry leaf cell culture extract 0. 0005%, vitamin C 20%, and vitamin E 1% (Antioxidant and Collagen Booster Serum, Max Biocare Pty Ltd.) has been reported to cause mild tingling and skin tightness (102355). It is unclear if these effects are due to red raspberry leaf, the other ingredients, or the combination.
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, red raspberry may cause gastrointestinal upset, diarrhea, and epigastric pain (112127).
Pulmonary/Respiratory ...A case of occupational asthma due to the inhalation of red raspberry powder has been reported for a 35-year-old female. Symptoms included wheezing and shortness of breath (70370).
General
...Orally, spinach is well tolerated when consumed as a food.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: In infants under 4 months of age, methemoglobinemia has been reported.
All routes of administration: Allergies in sensitive individuals.
Dermatologic ...Topically, contact dermatitis has been reported from spinach in a 54-year-old female farmer (41757).
Gastrointestinal ...Bagged spinach has been linked to Escherichia coli outbreaks, sometimes causing severe gastrointestinal symptoms and even death (75846,75847,75849,75851,96858).
Hematologic ...Orally, spinach ingestion by infants under 4 months of age can cause methemoglobinemia, due to its high nitrate content (75802,75858,75860,75861,75862).
Immunologic ...Orally, topically, and via inhalation, spinach has been reported to cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals (75870,96859).
Pulmonary/Respiratory ...Lung inflammation associated with allergic alveolitis has been reported after inhalation of spinach powder (75871). The powder has also been reported to induce occupational asthma in a spinach factory worker (75833).
General ...Orally, sweet cherry is generally well tolerated.
Immunologic ...Orally, sweet cherry can cause allergic reactions in sensitive patients. These reactions can range from mucosal irritation to urticaria, angioedema, dyspnea, cough, and gastrointestinal symptoms (14057).
General
...Orally, taurine is generally well-tolerated when used in typical doses for up to one year.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Constipation, diarrhea, and dyspepsia.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Hypersensitivity reactions in sensitive individuals. Case reports raise concerns for serious cardiovascular adverse effects, but these reports have involved energy drinks containing taurine and other ingredients. It is unclear if these adverse effects are due to taurine, other ingredients, or the combination.
Cardiovascular ...Changes in heart rate and increased blood pressure have been reported following the co-administration of taurine and caffeine, although the effects of taurine alone are unclear (77088). In healthy individuals, consumption of energy drinks containing taurine increased platelet aggregation and decreased endothelial function (77151,112268,112741). A case of cardiac arrest following strenuous exercise and an excessive intake of energy drinks containing caffeine and taurine has been reported (77136). In another case report, a 28-year-old male without cardiovascular risk factors presented to the hospital with radiating chest pain, shortness of breath, and diaphoresis after excessive intake of an energy drink containing taurine, caffeine, sugar, and glucuronolactone. Electrocardiogram findings confirmed myocardial infarction, and subsequent catheterization confirmed thrombotic occlusion (112741).
Endocrine ...Orally, taurine has been reported to cause hypoglycemia (77153).
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, constipation has been reported following the administration of taurine (77231). Dyspepsia has also been reported after oral taurine use (104165).
Hematologic ...In clinical research, taurine reduced platelet aggregation (77245). A case of massive intravascular hemolysis, presenting with confusion, dark urine, dyspnea, emesis, and fever, has been reported following the administration of a naturopathic vitamin infusion containing taurine, free amino acids, magnesium, and a vitamin B and D complex (77177). However, the effects of taurine alone are unclear.
Immunologic ...A case report describes a hypersensitivity reaction in a female patient with a history of allergies to sulfonamides, sulfites, and various foods, after ingestion of taurine and other sulfur-containing supplements. The amount of taurine in the products ranged from 50-500 mg per dose. The allergic reaction recurred upon rechallenge with taurine 250-300 mg (91514).
Neurologic/CNS
...In a case study, encephalopathy occurred in a body-builder who took approximately 14 grams of taurine in combination with insulin and anabolic steroids.
It is not known if this was due to the taurine or the other drugs taken (15536).
Cases of seizures following the consumption of energy drinks containing taurine have been reported (77105,77196). In clinical research, taurine has been reported to cause drowsiness and ataxia in epileptic children (77241).
Psychiatric ...In a case report, a 36-year-old male with adequately controlled bipolar disorder was hospitalized with symptoms of mania after consuming several cans of an energy drink containing taurine, caffeine, glucuronolactone, B vitamins, and other ingredients (Red Bull Energy Drink) over a period of four days (14302). It is unknown if this effect was related to taurine.
Pulmonary/Respiratory ...In human research, an exacerbation of pulmonary symptoms of cystic fibrosis has been associated with taurine supplementation, although this could also be caused by progression of the disease (77231).
Renal ...A case of acute kidney failure has been reported following the concomitant intake of 1 liter of vodka and 3 liters of an energy drink providing taurine 4. 6 grams, caffeine 780 mg, and alcohol 380 grams (77185).
General
...Orally, tomato leaves and ripe or unripe tomato fruit are well tolerated in typical food amounts.
Tomato extracts also seem to be well tolerated. Tomatine, a glycoalkaloid found in tomato leaves and unripe green tomatoes, can cause serious side effects when consumed in excessive amounts.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Bradycardia, diarrhea, respiratory disturbances, spasms, vomiting, and death with excessive consumption of tomatine, a glycoalkaloid found in tomato leaves and unripe green tomatoes.
Cardiovascular ...Orally, the glycoalkaloid tomatine in tomato leaf or green tomatoes can cause bradycardia when consumed in excessive amounts (18,102957).
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, the glycoalkaloid tomatine in tomato leaf or green tomatoes can cause severe mucous membrane irritation, vomiting, diarrhea, and colic when consumed in excessive amounts (18,102957).
Immunologic ...In a case report, a 31-year-old female working in the supermarket developed an airborne allergy to tomato stem proteins with symptoms of severe rhinoconjunctivitis. This woman did not have a food allergy to tomato fruit (102467).
Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, the glycoalkaloid tomatine in tomato leaf or green tomatoes can cause dizziness, stupor, headache, and mild spasms when consumed in excessive amounts (18,102957).
Pulmonary/Respiratory ...Orally, the glycoalkaloid tomatine in tomato leaf or green tomatoes can cause respiratory disturbances when consumed in excessive amounts. In severe cases, death by respiratory failure might occur (18,102957).
General
...Orally and topically, turmeric is generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Constipation, dyspepsia, diarrhea, distension, gastroesophageal reflux, nausea, and vomiting.
Topically: Curcumin, a constituent of turmeric, can cause contact urticaria and pruritus.
Cardiovascular ...Orally, a higher dose of turmeric in combination with other ingredients has been linked to atrioventricular heart block in one case report. It is unclear if turmeric caused this adverse event or if other ingredients or a contaminant were the cause. The patient had taken a combination supplement containing turmeric 1500-2250 mg, black soybean 600-900 mg, mulberry leaves, garlic, and arrowroot each about 300-450 mg, twice daily for one month before experiencing atrioventricular heart block. Heart rhythm normalized three days after discontinuation of the product. Re-administration of the product resulted in the same adverse effect (17720).
Dermatologic ...Following occupational and/or topical exposure, turmeric or its constituents curcumin, tetrahydrocurcumin, or turmeric oil, can cause allergic contact dermatitis (11146,79270,79470,79934,81410,81195). Topically, curcumin can also cause rash or contact urticaria (79985,97432,112117). In one case, a 60-year-old female, with no prior reactivity to regular oral consumption of turmeric products, developed urticaria after topical application of turmeric massage oil (97432). A case of pruritus has been reported following topical application of curcumin ointment to the scalp for the treatment of melanoma (11148). Yellow discoloration of the skin has been reported rarely in clinical research (113356). Orally, curcumin may cause pruritus, but this appears to be relatively uncommon (81163,97427,104148,114899). Pitting edema may also occur following oral intake of turmeric extract, but the frequency of this adverse event is less common with turmeric than with ibuprofen (89720). A combination of curcumin plus fluoxetine may cause photosensitivity (89728).
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, turmeric can cause gastrointestinal adverse effects (107110,107112,112118), including constipation (81149,81163,96135,113355), flatulence and yellow, hard stools (81106,96135), nausea and vomiting (10453,17952,89720,89728,96127,96131,96135,97430,112117,112118), diarrhea or loose stool (10453,17952,18204,89720,96135,110223,112117,112118,114898,114899), dyspepsia (17952,89720,89721,96161,112118), gastritis (89728), distension and gastroesophageal reflux disease (18204,89720), abdominal fullness and pain (81036,89720,96161,97430,114898,114899), epigastric burning (81444), and tongue staining (89723).
Hepatic
...Orally, turmeric has been associated with liver damage, including non-infectious hepatitis, cholestasis, and hepatocellular liver injury.
There have been at least 70 reports of liver damage associated with taking turmeric supplements for at least 2 weeks and for up to 14 months. Most cases of liver damage resolved upon discontinuation of the turmeric supplement. Sometimes, turmeric was used concomitantly with other supplements and medications (99304,102346,103094,103631,103633,103634,107122,109288,110221). The Drug-Induced Liver Injury Network (DILIN) has identified 10 cases of liver injury which were considered to be either definitely, highly likely, or probably associated with turmeric; none of these cases were associated with the use of turmeric in combination with other potentially hepatotoxic supplements. Most patients (90%) presented with hepatocellular pattern of liver injury. The median age of these case reports was 56 years and 90% identified as White. In these case reports, the carrier frequency on HLAB*35:01 was 70%, which is higher than the carrier frequency found in the general population. Of the ten patients, 5 were hospitalized and 1 died from liver injury (109288).
It is not clear if concomitant use with other supplements or medications contributes to the risk for liver damage. Many case reports did not report turmeric formulation, dosing, or duration of use (99304,103094,103631,103634,109288). However, at least 10 cases involved high doses of curcumin (250-1812.5 mg daily) and the use of highly bioavailable formulations such as phytosomal curcumin and formulations containing piperine (102346,103633,107122,109288,110221).
Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, turmeric has been associated with headache and vertigo (81163,114898).
Psychiatric ...Orally, the turmeric constituent curcumin or a combination of curcumin and fluoxetine can cause giddiness, although this event seems to be uncommon (81206,89728).
Renal ...Orally, turmeric has been linked to one report of kidney failure, although the role of turmeric in this case is unclear. A 69-year-old male developed kidney failure related to calcium oxalate deposits in the renal tubules following supplementation with turmeric 2 grams daily for 2 years as an anti-inflammatory for pelvic pain. While turmeric is a source of dietary oxalates, pre-existing health conditions and/or chronic use of antibiotics may have contributed to the course of disease (113343).
Other ...There is a single case report of death associated with intravenous use of turmeric. However, analysis of the treatment vial suggests that the vial contained only 0.023% of the amount of curcumin listed on the label. Also, the vial had been diluted in a solution of ungraded polyethylene glycol (PEG) 40 castor oil that was contaminated with 1.25% diethylene glycol. Therefore the cause of death is unknown but is unlikely to be related to the turmeric (96136).
General
...Orally, tyrosine seems to be well tolerated.
No serious adverse effects have been documented; however, a thorough evaluation of safety outcomes has not been conducted.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Fatigue, headache, heartburn, and nausea.
Gastrointestinal ...Orally, tyrosine can cause nausea and heartburn when taken at a dose of 150 mg/kg (7211). Taking tyrosine 4 grams daily in combination with 5-hydroxytryptophan 800 mg and carbidopa 100 mg can cause diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. These effects can be mitigated by lowering the dosage (918).
Musculoskeletal ...Orally, larger doses of tyrosine (150 mg/kg) can cause arthralgia, but this is uncommon (7211).
Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, larger doses of tyrosine (150 mg/kg) can cause headache and fatigue (7211). Taking a combination of tyrosine 4 grams, 5-hydroxytryptophan 800 mg, and carbidopa 100 mg can cause drowsiness and agitation. These effects can be mitigated by lowering the dosage (918).
General
...Orally, intramuscularly, and topically, vitamin B12 is generally well-tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Intramuscular: Injection site reactions.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Intramuscularly: Severe hypokalemia has been rarely linked with correction of megaloblastic anemia with vitamin B12.
Cardiovascular ...In human clinical research, an intravenous loading dose of folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12, followed by daily oral administration after coronary stenting, increased restenosis rates (12150). Hypertension following intravenous administration of hydroxocobalamin has been reported in human research (82870,82864).
Dermatologic
...Orally or intramuscularly, vitamin B12 can cause allergic reactions such as rash, pruritus, erythema, and urticaria.
Theoretically, allergic reactions might be caused by the cobalt within the vitamin B12 molecule (82864,90373,90381,103974). In one case report, oral methylcobalamin resulted in contact dermatitis in a 59-year-old Japanese female with a cobalt allergy (103974). In another case report, a 69-year-old female developed a symmetrical erythematous-squamous rash for 5 years after oral vitamin B12 supplementation for 10 years. A patch test confirmed that the systemic allergic dermatitis was due to vitamin B12 supplementation, which resolved 3 months after discontinuation (114578).
Vitamin B12 (intramuscular or oral) has also been associated with at least 19 cases of acneiform eruptions which resolved upon discontinuation of vitamin B12 (90365,90369,90388). High-dose vitamin B12 (20 mcg daily) and vitamin B6 (80 mg daily) have been associated with cases of rosacea fulminans characterized by intense erythema with nodules, papules, and pustules. Symptoms may last up to four months after the supplement is stopped and can be treated with systemic corticosteroids and topical therapy (10998,82870,82871).
Gastrointestinal ...Intravenously, vitamin B12 (hydroxocobalamin) 2. 5-10 grams can cause nausea and dysphagia (82864).
Genitourinary ...Intravenously, vitamin B12 (hydroxocobalamin) 5-15 grams has been associated with chromaturia in clinical research (82870,82871,112282,112264).
Hematologic ...According to case report data, the correction of megaloblastic anemia with vitamin B12 may result in fatal hypokalemia (82914).
Musculoskeletal ...According to case report data, correction of megaloblastic anemia with vitamin B12 has precipitated gout in susceptible individuals (82879).
Neurologic/CNS ...Treatment with vitamin B12 has been rarely associated with involuntary movements in infants with vitamin B12 deficiency (90370,90385,90397). In some cases these adverse reactions were misdiagnosed as seizures or infantile tremor syndrome (90370,90385). These adverse reactions presented 2-5 days after treatment with vitamin B12 and resolved once vitamin B12 was discontinued (90370,90385,90397).
Oncologic ...Although some epidemiological research disagrees (9454), most research has found that elevated plasma levels of vitamin B12 are associated with an increased risk of various types of cancer, including lung and prostate cancers and solid tumors (50411,102383,107743). One study found, when compared with blood levels of vitamin B12 less than 1000 ng/mL, plasma vitamin B12 levels of at least 1000 ng/mL was strongly associated with the occurrence of solid cancer (107743). It is unclear if increased intake of vitamin B12, either through the diet or supplementation, directly affects the risk of cancer. It is possible that having cancer increases the risk of vitamin B12 elevation. However, one observational study has found that the highest quintile of dietary intake of vitamin B12 is associated with a 75% increased incidence of developing esophageal cancer when compared with the lowest quintile in never drinkers, but not drinkers (107147).
Renal ...There is a case report of oxalate nephropathy in a 54-year-old male which was determined to be related to the use of intravenous hydroxocobalamin as treatment for cyanide poisoning. Intermittent hemodialysis was started 5 days after admission, along with a low-oxalate diet, oral calcium acetate, and pyridoxine 5 mg/kg daily (107148). A review of the use of intravenous hydroxocobalamin for suspected cyanide poisoning in 21 intensive care units in France between 2011 and 2017 resulted in a 60% increased odds of acute kidney injury and a 77% increased odds of severe acute kidney injury in the first week. However, biopsies were not conducted and a direct link with use of hydroxocobalamin could not be made (107139).
Other ...Several studies have found that higher vitamin B12 levels may be associated with increased mortality or decreased survival rates in hospitalized elderly patients (82889,82812,82857,82895). Human research has also found a positive correlation between vitamin B12 status and all-cause mortality in Pima Indians with diabetes (82863).
General
...Orally or by injection, vitamin B6 is well tolerated in doses less than 100 mg daily.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally or by injection: Abdominal pain, allergic reactions, headache, heartburn, loss of appetite, nausea, somnolence, vomiting.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally or by injection: Sensory neuropathy (high doses).
Dermatologic ...Orally, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) has been linked to reports of skin and other allergic reactions and photosensitivity (8195,9479,90375). High-dose vitamin B6 (80 mg daily as pyridoxine) and vitamin B12 (20 mcg daily) have been associated with cases of rosacea fulminans characterized by intense erythema with nodules, papules, and pustules. Symptoms may persist for up to 4 months after the supplement is stopped, and may require treatment with systemic corticosteroids and topical therapy (10998).
Gastrointestinal ...Orally or by injection, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) can cause nausea, vomiting, heartburn, abdominal pain, mild diarrhea, and loss of appetite (8195,9479,16306,83064,83103,107124,107127,107135). In a clinical trial, one patient experienced infectious gastroenteritis that was deemed possibly related to taking vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) orally up to 20 mg/kg daily (90796). One small case-control study has raised concern that long-term dietary vitamin B6 intake in amounts ranging from 3.56-6.59 mg daily can increase the risk of ulcerative colitis (3350).
Hematologic ...Orally or by injection, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) can cause decreased serum folic acid concentrations (8195,9479). One case of persistent bleeding of unknown origin has been reported in a clinical trial for a patient who used vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 100 mg twice daily on days 16 to 35 of the menstrual cycle (83103). It is unclear if this effect was due to vitamin B6 intake.
Musculoskeletal ...Orally or by injection, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) can cause breast soreness or enlargement (8195).
Neurologic/CNS ...Orally or by injection, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) can cause headache, paresthesia, and somnolence (8195,9479,16306). Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) can also cause sensory neuropathy, which is related to daily dose and duration of intake. Doses exceeding 1000 mg daily or total doses of 1000 grams or more pose the most risk, although neuropathy can occur with lower daily or total doses as well (8195). The mechanism of the neurotoxicity is unknown, but is thought to occur when the liver's capacity to phosphorylate pyridoxine via the active coenzyme pyridoxal phosphate is exceeded (8204). Some researchers recommend taking vitamin B6 as pyridoxal phosphate to avoid pyridoxine neuropathy, but its safety is unknown (8204). Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) neuropathy is characterized by numbness and impairment of the sense of position and vibration of the distal limbs, and a gradual progressive sensory ataxia (8196,10439). The syndrome is usually reversible with discontinuation of pyridoxine at the first appearance of neurologic symptoms. Residual symptoms have been reported in patients taking more than 2 grams daily for extended periods (8195,8196). Daily doses of 100 mg or less are unlikely to cause these problems (3094).
Oncologic ...In females, population research has found that a median intake of vitamin B6 1. 63 mg daily is associated with a 3.6-fold increased risk of rectal cancer when compared with a median intake of 1.05 mg daily (83024). A post-hoc subgroup analysis of results from clinical research in adults with a history of recent stroke or ischemic attack suggests that taking folic acid, vitamin B12, and vitamin B6 does not increase cancer risk overall, although it was associated with an increased risk of cancer in patients who also had diabetes (90378). Also, in patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma, population research has found that consuming at least 8.6 mg daily of supplemental vitamin B6 during treatment was associated with a lower overall survival rate over 5 years, as well as a reduced progression-free survival, when compared with non-users and those with intakes of up to 8.6 mg daily (107134).
